The Effects of Race on Perceived Danger Among African American Students

The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects that the stigmas of race and mental illness have on perceived dangerousness and social distancing behaviors as it relates to African American College Students. African Americans have historically faced many racial stigmas that have resulted in negative effects. Conversely, persons with mental illness have been reported to have negative consequences to the stigmas associated with societal perceptions regarding mental illness. This study seeks to explore the intersection of racial and mental illness stigmas within African American College Students.

Purpose

The purpose of this research is to determine whether there is a correlation between the levels of racial and mental illness sensitivity and the perceptions of dangerousness and the need for social distancing in African American students, as well as the extent of target demographics’ performance.

Hypothesis

It is predicted that the increase in racial and mental illness sensitivity will decrease the perceptions of dangerousness and social distancing, thus having a positive effect on the performance of African American Students. To test this hypothesis, a survey will be conducted to measure perceptions of dangerousness and social distancing stigmatization, which influence (or compared to) racial and mental illness stigma. The main independent variable, namely, the level of racial and mental illness sensitivity, is shaped by the dependent variables of perceived dangerousness of African Americans and the necessity to introduce social distancing.

Method

Participants

In this experiment, fifty students from the General Psychology course at Southern University and A&M College will be selected to participate voluntarily. The students will be offered extra credit for participation in the study. The age of the participants will range from 17 to 35 years old and be classified based on gender. The study will obtain informed consent from all participants.

Materials

The materials that will be used for this experiment will be a sheet containing instructions within a paragraph with a pen. A paper questionnaire will be provided for the survey. Samples of these forms will be in the Appendices.

Procedures

This study will use a quantitative research design. The participants will be randomly assigned to either group one, consisting of twenty-five one or group two of twenty five based on the random distributions of twenty-five of survey one and twenty five of survey two. The Dependent Variable, namely, the perceived dangerousness, will be measured with the following: “Some people with mental health problems are dangerous.” Possible responses are: (1) strongly disagree, (2) somewhat agree, (3) agree, (4) somewhat agree, and (5) strongly agree.

Dependent Variable social distance will be measured with the following “Chris has just been released from psychiatric care, in your opinion, how likely are you to sit next to him in a lobby? Possible responses are (1) very likely, (2) somewhat likely, (3) likely, (4) not likely, and (5) not likely at all.

Independent variable race will be measured by self-identification of participants as “African American or black”, scored (1), or “Other”, scored (0). The specified framework represents the scales for race and mental illness stigma. An additional measurement of race will be in response racial oriented questions. Possibility of responses will be scored (1) strongly disagree, (2) somewhat disagree, (3) agree, (4) somewhat agree, and (5) strongly agree.

Independent variable mental illness stigma will be measured will be response mental illness oriented question. Possibility of responses will be scored (1) strongly disagree, (2) somewhat disagree, (3) agree, (4) somewhat agree, and (5) strongly agree. The scale in question, known as the Likert scale, is a common tool for conducting research and collecting data. The scale is considered to be marginally reliable due to the clear delineation of core answer options.

The participants will be provided a consent form to sign. The form will contain a detailed explanation of the goals of the project, as well as the participants’ role in it. By signing the consent form, the participants will confirm that they accept the terms of the project and will participate in it as instructed. The project will involve random assignment as the means of increasing the extent of results’ objectivity. The treatment will be represented by a framework based on the Cognitive Behavior therapy approach. The participants will be thanked after the research for contributing to the management of the issue.

Data Analysis

In the research of Anglin, Link, and Phelan (2006), it was suggested that Blacks were more apt than Whites to be convinced that people with schizophrenia or depressive disorder would be more likely to inflict violence on other people. At the same time, they were “less likely to believe these individuals should be blamed and punished for violent behavior.” The 2006 study found racial differences in denouncing arrogant toward citizens with mental illness did not necessarily result in endorsement of tougher handling of people suffering from mentally illness. This 2006 study showcased the complicated process of addressing the stigma and emphasized the need to consider racial differences in “developing interventions’ ‘ geared toward improving public perceptions and attitudes toward those diagnosed with a psychological impairment. According to the evidence, confronting racial variations while investigating stigma and mental illness is vitally important. This national study, conducted via telephone survey, had a probability sample of 1,241 respondents. Anglin (2006) concluded that racial differences in stigmatizing attitudes toward individuals with mental illness, according to the data analyzed based on survey results.

Previous research that explains the biological impacts on attitude is available in the existing body of knowledge. Boysen (2011) examined the theory of essentialism, which suggested that biological explanations of stigmatized behavior may not be useful in lowering disparaged attitudes and perceptions. The experiments performed in this study examined topics addressing biological explanations on stigmatizing attitudes. Participants (N = 243) perceived a biological explanation as insignificant in relation to dangerousness and social distancing attitudes about mental illness than about same-sex attraction. Additional research (N = 113) looked at the effect of biological and freedom of choice in comparison to stigmatizing attitudes about abnormal sexual and dietary habits. Previous research also indicated that a “biological explanation increased belief in essentialism and was most effective for attitudes related to anger and blame” (Boysen, 2011). The study’s findings suggest that the effectiveness of biological explanations do not necessarily contribute to a significant influence on perceptions and attitudes.

The research of Lee (1999) stressed the importance of examining social distance based on labels. Social distance is important because it may determine perceived dangerousness and how it drives the desire for social distance from people who are mentally ill. The effects of gender, educational level, and “psychiatric label” were examined in this study to determine if the identified variables influence social distancing or the desire thereof. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of gender, psychiatric label and educational level on perceived dangerousness and desired social distance from persons with mental illness. According to Lee, data was collected from the General Social Surveys (GSS), conducted bi-annually, and included 1431 participants (1999). The sample size consisted of 555 men and 658 women. Previous research has also discovered that there is a significant primary effect for both educational level and psychiatric label. Participants were assigned to one of five label vignette conditions that varied in label and symptoms: troubled, schizophrenia, depression, alcoholism, and drug abuse. The person described in the vignette was also assigned to one of three educational levels: eighth grade, high school, and college” (Lee, 1999). According to the research (1999) it is generalized that people want less social distance from people with a college education and more social distance from those with a high school education comparatively. Survey results also imply that people who were apparent drug abusers were viewed as more dangerous than other identified psychiatric categories and ultimately desired more social distance from drug abusers (Lee, 1999).

Public conceptions of Mental Illness including its intersectionality with labels, causes, perceived danger and social distancing was examined in a 1999 study featured in the American Journal of Public Health (Link, Phelan, Bresnahan, Stueve, & Pescosolido, 1999). Using nation-wide survey data to draw conclusions about public perceptions of mental illness and its relation to real or perceived causes of psychological conditions, researchers examined mental illness and perceived causes, potential dangerousness, and desired social distance. In this study, 1,444 Respondents were randomly assigned to I of 5 conditions. Four (4) met the criteria and “vignettes described psychiatric disorders meeting diagnostic criteria, and the fifth depicted a ‘troubled person’ with sub-clinical problems and worries” (Link, 1999). The conclusions drawn support the notion that there is reason for the public to be skeptical in societal sensitivities toward recognizing mental illness and what causes it; a persistent stereotype of potential danger and the desire to create distance socially. These concepts suggest a negative impact on people suffering from mental illness conditions (Link,1999).

Results suggest that a majority of the public can identify characteristics of schizophrenia (88%) and major depression (69%) as mental illnesses. Furthermore, Link (1999) implies that fewer people associate alcohol (49%) or drug (44%) abuse as a form of mental illness according to the research. Symptoms of mental illness therefore continue to be associated with public fears of potential violence and result in the preference for limited social interaction.

An experiment 184 individuals investigated influence and social distance effects based on several factors which influence certain attributes of interpersonal interactions. The attributes of the Lucas (1999) research listed race, education, panic disorder, depression, and schizophrenia. In the study, placebo partners were assigned the selected attributes. According to the article, low educational attainment and schizophrenia significantly reduced the influence of partners based on survey results. The experimental factors yielded results that are recommended for further examination and suggested that that race had no impact on influence but did impact social distance. Additionally, different mental illness labels led to different reactions, according to the study. According to the results, schizophrenia led to a strong correlation with negative perceptions and behavior patterns when people interact with one another in certain settings. Participants sought significantly more social distance from partners who were African American and those with depression or schizophrenia than other partners. The findings further suggest additional exploration is needed to determine the impact of racial differences when investigating stigma and mental illness (Lucas, 1999).

The overall research suggests that differences exist amongst racial groups, specifically relative to stigmatizing attitudes. The review of related literature indicates that racial differences and stigma are not consistently damaging among racial and mental illness conditions. Overall, it can be assumed that marginalized racial groups are less likely to adopt attitudes that project judgmental perceptions and increase untoward attitudes regarding blame and punishment. The research supports the idea that specific racial groups are less likely to seek treatment for mental health care due to the broad perception of negative stigmas toward people with mental illness and the need for further examination and refinement.

Research Scales

This scale will be modified and used to measure mental illness stigma.

Mental Illness Stigma Scale

I don’t think that it is possible to have a normal relationship with someone with [a mental illness]. (Relationship Disruption)

• Strongly Disagree 1
• Somewhat Disagree 2
• Agree 3
• Somewhat Agree 4
• Strongly Agree 5

The research scale will be scored utilizing the rank order from the Bogardus scale as a multiplier to the Likert responses for each item. This scale will be modified and used to measure effects of race and mental illness on Social Distance.

This scale will be modified and used to measure effects of race and mental illness on Perceived Dangerousness.

Perceived Dangerousness Scale

Some people with mental health problems are dangerous:

• Strongly Disagree 1
• Somewhat Disagree 2
• Agree 3
• Somewhat Agree 4
• Strongly Agree 5

Research Topic Information

The independent variables for the research project are Race and Mental Illness Stigma, and the dependent variables are Perceived Dangerousness and Social Distance.

The hypotheses for this research project are:

1. There will be a significant difference in perceived danger as it affects racial awareness.
2. There will be a significant difference in perceived danger as it affects an increase of mental illness education.
3. There will be a significant difference in social distancing as it affects an increase in racial awareness.
4. There will be a significant difference in social distancing as it affects an increase of mental illness education.

The directional hypotheses for this research project are:

1. There will be a significant decrease in perceived danger as racial awareness increases.
2. There will be a significant decrease in perceived danger as mental illness education increases.
3. There will be a significant decrease in social distancing as racial awareness increases.
4. There will be a significant decrease in social distancing as mental illness education increases.

The variables will be operationally defined as follows:

1. Scoring and scaling the measure of race and mental illness on perceived danger.
2. Scoring and scaling the measure of race and mental illness on social distancing.

The variables that will be manipulated are race, with the manipulation being racial phrasing. The other will be mental illness with the manipulation of varying mental illness stereotypes.

Four Article Analysis Assignment

Article 1: Lee, Anna. (1999). The Effects of Gender, Educational Level and Psychiatric Label on Perceived Dangerousness and Desired Social Distance from Persons with a Mental Illness. Honors College Thesis. Southern University, Baton Rouge.

Purpose: The purpose of the article was to determine the effects of gender, psychiatric label educational level on perceived dangerousness and desired social distance from persons with mental illness. (Lee, 1999)

Independent/ Dependent Variables:

• Independent Variables: Gender, Psychiatric Label, Educational Level
• Dependent Variables: Perceived Dangerousness and Social Distance

Article 2: Link, B. G., Phelan, J. C., Bresnahan, M., Stueve, A., & Pescosolido, B. A. (1999). Public conceptions of mental illness: Labels, causes, dangerousness, and social distance. American Journal of Public Health, 89(9), 1328–1333.

Purpose: The purpose of the article is to examine the characterization of current public conceptions as it relates to recognition of mental illness and perceived causes, dangerousness, and desired social distance. American college students (Link, 1999).

Independent/ Dependent Variable:

• Independent Variables: Labels, Causes, Dangerousness, and Social Distance
• Dependent Variables: Public Conceptions of Mental Illness

Article 3: Anglin, D. M., Link, B. G., & Phelan, J. C. (2006). Racial Differences in Stigmatizing Attitudes Toward People with Mental Illness. Psychiatric Services, 57(6), 857-8623.

Purpose: The purpose of the article is to examine whether racial differences extend to beliefs about how people with mental illness are treated with violence.

Independent/ Dependent Variable:

• Independent Variables: Racial Differences
• Dependent Variables: Stigmatizing Attitudes

Article 4: Bresnahan, M., Stueve, A., & Pescosolido, B. (2011). Biological Explanations and Stigmatizing Attitudes: Using Essentialism and Perceived Dangerousness to Predict Antistigma Intervention Effectiveness. The Journal of Social Psychology, 151(3), 274-291.

Purpose: The purpose of the article is to examine whether biological explanations reduce stigmatizing attitudes.

Independent/ Dependent Variable:

• Independent Variables: Biological Explanation, Essentialism, Perceived Dangerousness
• Dependent Variables: Stigmatizing Attitudes

References

Lucas, J. W., & Phelan, J. C. (2019). Influence and Social Distance Consequences across Categories of Race and Mental Illness. Society and Mental Health, 9(2), 143–157. Web.

Marie, D., & Miles, B. (2008). Social distance and perceived dangerousness across four diagnostic categories of mental disorder. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 42(2), 126–133. Web.