Chapter 9 Summary
Thinking
The main focus of chapter nine is human cognition and how it is applied during problem-solving and decision-making. Cognition includes the various mental activities associated with thinking, memory, and communication (Myers & DeWall, 2021). Problem-solving is generally achieved through algorithms, systematic trial and error, and flashes of insight, instant realizations of solutions. However, since the brain is exposed to an enormous amount of stimuli throughout the day, it has developed a few specific mechanisms to process information more quickly and efficiently to avoid being overwhelmed. The mind groups similar objects, events, ideas, or people into one coherent concept and judges new stimuli according to how they match the best representation of that concept, the prototype. While methodical problem-solving guarantees a solution, it is a consuming process, so the brain develops certain shortcuts to conserve energy.
Since the mind makes snap judgments according to preexisting concepts and prototypes, it is also prone to errors. We are overconfident in the accuracy of our knowledge and make decisions according to intuition, which can be based on cognitive biases. The representative heuristic is a thinking strategy that judges the likelihood of something by intuitively comparing it to a particular prototype, while the availability heuristic evaluates how common an event is based on its vividness or recency (Myers & DeWall, 2021). Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions. Belief perseverance is the phenomenon wherein people cling to their initial conceptions, and fixation is the inability to approach a problem from a new angle. While making quick decisions is more efficient, it also comes with the peril of producing misleading results.
Language
The second part of chapter nine is concerned with language structure, development, and processing. Language is the system of spoken, written, or signed words that combine to communicate meaning (Myers & DeWall, 2021). Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas in the brain are responsible for language processing, and damage in these areas can impair speaking and understanding. The structural components of language include phonemes, morphemes, grammar, semantics, and syntax. Children discern and readily learn the structure of the language they are exposed to before the age of seven. Babies’ ability to understand language develops faster than their capacity to produce it. They generally achieve the babbling stage at four months and move to the one-word stage around their first birthday and the two-word stage by the second. After that, they rapidly begin uttering longer phrases and understand complex sentences and double meanings by early elementary school. Language is acquired during childhood and production gradually progresses from simple to complex.
Chapter 10 Summary
Intelligence
Chapter 10 discusses intelligence and its genetic and environmental influences. While there are multiple theories of intelligence, it is generally defined as the mental potential to apply knowledge gained from previous experience to new situations (Myers & DeWall, 2021). Spearman’s general intelligence predicts our success in various academic fields by testing verbal, spatial, and reasoning skills. The Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory differentiates between fluid intelligence, the ability to think fast, and crystallized intelligence, the ability to accumulate knowledge. However, other scientists have argued that human skills are far more diverse and have developed multiple types of intelligence, such as analytic, creative, practical, and emotional. People with savant syndrome may score low on IQ tests but be brilliant in one specific area. Furthermore, it is important to acknowledge that grit and deliberate practice also contribute to success rather than simply innate ability.
Assessment
Several tests have been created to assess intelligence on a numerical scale. Achievement tests determine what a person already knows, while aptitude tests predict future performance (Myers & DeWall, 2021). These tests are constructed on the principles of standardization, reliability, and validity. Mental age is the measure developed by Binet that assigns certain levels of performance to chronological age. Stern devised the intelligence quotient (IQ) that represents the performance relative to the average population. The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale is the most widely used, which consists of 15 subtests measuring verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed. Individuals that perform extremely low on these tests are categorized as intellectually disabled.
Genetic and Environmental Influences
Studies have confirmed that intelligence is mostly heritable and attributable to genetics. Identical twins exhibit substantially similar talents and score similarly on tests even when adopted by different families. However, a natural aptitude for learning can either be fostered or suppressed based on environmental influences. Firstly, social factors are important since poverty impedes cognitive performance by producing stress. Secondly, external motivation and our own subsequent beliefs affect our resilience when confronted with difficult learning material. For example, since boys in North America are encouraged to pursue math, they tend to perform better in international science exams. People in poorer regions of China and Turkey have lower scores compared to wealthier ones. Furthermore, intelligence tests can be biased to predict the achievement of a specific demographic rather than the general population. While intelligence is largely based on innate ability, it also depends on environmental interactions.
References
Myers, D. G., & DeWall, N.C. (2021). Psychology (13th ed.). Macmillan Learning.