Abstract
This article addresses early childhood trauma and its long-term implications, which can result in life-long clinical and emotional deficits. Early childhood trauma, particularly severe trauma, can result in biological alterations affecting human growth and substantial modifications in brain activity. These structural alterations in the brain are fundamental for mental and bodily performance. According to empirical research, childhood trauma is related to physiological, mental, and psychological impacts that can last into adulthood. This article investigates trauma exposure’s neurological, physiological, and psychological effects. The long-term ramifications of PTSD disclosure are mentioned, as well as the significance of acknowledging preventive aspects, investigating tenacity, and recognizing evidenced-oriented treatment mechanisms to help trauma sufferers mitigate side effects.
Introduction
The paper presents a review of the impact that traumatic experiences have on the social, psychological, and cognitive development of children. A discussion on the long-term effects such as PTSD is presented to address the need to provide enactable interventions to the SD prevalence. The articles selected for the reviews are employed to make connections between effective treatments and the suggestions made by the researchers. A child’s exposure to a traumatic event may leave them emotionally scarred for life, but this article provides a foundation for understanding how to reduce the consequences of such experiences. It is critical to detect when a youngster may require professional assistance in coping with their trauma because early identification can indeed avert the trauma’s long-term repercussions into adulthood.
Review of Chosen Articles
This section reviews the existing literature on early childhood trauma, its effects, and the prevalence of PTSD. The articles explored in this context touch on a wide range of research and scopes, providing a rich source of information for researchers and practitioners. The publication dates of the articles vary significantly but focus on the same study topic. The review explores the research populations, sample sizes, research methodologies, results, conclusions, and recommendations as required.
Briggs-Gowan et al. (2010) explored the potential impacts of potentially traumatic exposure to traumatic events. They researched the clinical patterns of the effects of traumatic disorders and symptoms in preschool children. The study incorporated 230 children in its analysis. The age brackets for the children were between 24 and 48 months, with an average age of 34.9 months and a standard deviation of 6.7 months (Briggs-Gowan et al., 2010). While the particularly stressful quasi-engagement was linked to phobic phobia, exposure to violence was generally connected with the psychological condition of melancholy, behavior problems, distress, and disciplinary issues. Even when other relevant elements, such as unfair cost and maternal depression complaints, were mathematically adjusted for, the preponderance of relationships between victimization and preschoolers’ manifestations persisted. However, the correlations between trauma, abuse, melancholy and antisocial symptoms may have been transparent or translucent, influenced by familial depression symptoms. The study concluded that the strong correlations between victimization highlight continuous prospective investigation into neurocognitive processes and networks during infanthood and toddler posttraumatic abnormalities and manifestations. The results highlight the importance of measuring trauma exposure to pinpoint vulnerable early children.
Adding to the study mentioned earlier, this study, which proposed a developmental approach for posttraumatic stress disorder in children and adults, explored different variables to make its conclusions. Cloitre et al. (2009) incorporated 582 adults and 152 children in their research. The study results indicated that childhood trauma’s effects translated to complicated symptoms in adults. However, trauma in adulthood did not have any impact on the associated symptoms. The study concluded that the complexity of symptoms in children resulted from increased cumulative trauma. The study results showed that the PTSD symptom got complicated in both children and adults. It was also established that the traumatic experiences in childhood translated to enhanced symptoms in adults. This conclusion only enhances the emphasis on the first study as it portrays the cumulative trauma experienced during childhood manifesting till adulthood; hence measuring it and mitigating it from its onset is vital.
The need for developing appropriate trauma diagnoses was explored to understand the concept of interpersonal pain in children. D’Andrea et al. (2012) noted that midterm or long-term functional impartment and distress resulted from childhood victimization. The study established that the children subjected to interpersonal trauma were eligible for psychiatric malfunctions instead of PTSD. The study summarized the results and proposed approaches for expanding the current research base. The study results focused on stigmatization, the pervasiveness of psychotic illnesses connected to influence and behavioral excitotoxicity, perturbations of awareness and comprehension, changes in identification and constructs, and interactional cognitive deficits. The results suggested guidance for widening existing diagnostic conceptual frameworks for children who have been victims. Children who had been harmed frequently displayed a variety of manifestations. As a result, many traumatized children are described by comorbidities in the present clinical nomenclature, which may result in underdiagnosis and overdiagnosis. The research on therapeutic efficacy and studies related to the underlying causes of childhood maltreatment were also examined. Future studies suggestions were proposed to improve traumatized children’s prognosis and care.
The problem of childhood trauma was neglected for a long time, leaving children to suffer and develop complicated symptoms in later days. De Young et al. (2011) noted that children are highly susceptible to trauma, affecting their development Adversely. The study emphasized that the development of children is highly dependent on the caregivers’ commitment. The study also noted that traumatized children had been neglected, exposing them to incapacitated development patterns. However, the authors acknowledged that the situation had improved recently among the scholarly communities and practitioners. The study focused on several objectives including the manifestation of trauma in children, the history and prevalence of PTSD in preschoolers, and the development of trauma responses. Other objectives included considerations for the development of interventions, the associated risks and choice of protective consideration, and the appropriate choice for treatment. The study revealed that there exists a distinction between the rate of manifestation and the symptoms of trauma in children.
Similar to childhood trauma neglect, the impact and long-term effects of trauma in childhood trauma are a major challenge in modern social stability. Dye (2018) reviewed the negative effects of early childhood trauma and how they contributed to defective developmental or medical conditions. The review found that early infancy trauma, particularly complicated cases, can alter the neurobiology in ways that significantly affect child progress and alter brain activity. Neurocognitive capabilities are caused by these modifications to the brain’s structural organization. Childhood trauma is linked to cognitive, psychological, and physiological issues that can last into adolescence, regarding experimental observations. This review investigated trauma exposure’s cognitive, pharmacological, and mental consequences. The significance of acknowledging prevention strategies, investigating robustness, and characterizing experimentally verified therapeutic approaches to help mitigate manifestations of trauma survivors was discussed, along with the long-term effects of trauma subjection.
The impact on the effect of missed traumatic conditions triggered research aimed at establishing the extent to which complex symptoms were exhibited. Grasso et al. (2009) acknowledged that PTSD was not adequately explored in samples for maltreated cases. The study found that knowledge about protective interventions was essential for compiling comprehensive trauma experiences and deciding whether to assess PTSD manifestations in abused children. Without evidence from psychological support to back caregivers’ and children’s reports, the confirmation of PTSD was overlooked in many study instances. In order to determine psychiatric assessment and effective treatment requirements for children associated with the foster care system, teamwork between therapists and social service personnel was essential. One hundred and ninety-nine children were sampled in the study, with one hundred and sixteen maltreated cases removed from their residences 180 days before the onset of the study. Another 83 children had not been subjected to or experienced domestic violence o maltreatment from community control centers (Grasso et al., 2009). The participants were between six and fourteen years and were selected from a research population to establish the effectiveness of therapy for kids starting out-of-home care. It was established that physical, sexual, and domestic violence abuses were mainly caused by mothers, workers, and other children. Parents had the least contribution to sexual and physical abuse, while workers contributed to over 90% of the cases, as established in the study (Grasso et al., 2009). However, parents registered the highest score in domestic violence. Although the study did not consider the frequency of the diagnosis, the results suggested that there was a need for the inclusion of alternative assessment tools and techniques other than conventional methods.
Heim et al. (2010) enlightened Grasso et al.’s (2009) study by exploring the psychiatric and neurobiological consequences of neglected child abuse. The study evaluated the impact of childhood trauma and how it may affect the management of melancholy. Early physical and sexual assault, abandonment, and maternal bereavement were all discussed, along with their predominance and therapeutic repercussions. The results of human clinical trials on the neurobiological effects of childhood trauma were compiled. Sex differences and genetic variation are two moderating factors highlighted as significant causes and contributors to traumatic symptoms. The few recent studies on treatment outcomes pertinent to this field of study were described, suggesting the recent changes in research objectives. The rehabilitation of children with depressive manifestations who had a history of maltreatment and victimization was guided. Most individuals who have had childhood trauma are probably best handled with a mix of medication and therapy.
The presence of traumatic manifestations in maltreated preschool children is essential in developing and identifying character problems. Due to Heim et al. (2010), Milot et al. (2010) examined how child abuse and behavioral difficulties relate and how trauma indicators may play a moderating function. It was predicated on the hypothesis that child abuse is a significant kind of persistent interpersonal trauma that negatively affects their ability to regulate their conduct. The study included children aged between 46 and 72 months, with the average age at 60 months (Milot et al., 2010). All children were selected from low-income families. A total of 98 children were sampled, and 64 did not have a history of maltreatment. The remaining 34 children had a history of maltreatment which was essential for controlling the study results (Milot et al., 2010). Structural equation modeling was employed to achieve the mediation procedure. Mediational studies showed that the relationship between victimization and both intrinsic and extrinsic behaviors tendencies was fully influenced by traumatic manifestation. The study’s findings supported the theory that early maltreatment-related trauma sensations may play a role in preschoolers developing psychiatric issues by providing verifiable research in line with studies on prenatal trauma inquiry.
Gender-specific research sought to establish the coping adaptation of men traumatized in childhood. In this study, O’Leary (2009) sought to establish the adaptation strategies employed by men who had been sexually abused in childhood. The study focused on the relationship between coping mechanisms and clinical disorders. The connection between the time after the abuse and cognitive well-being was scrutinized. A preliminary sample of 147 men was gathered through organizations and self-help organizations that assist grownups who experienced sexual assault as children. A supplementary population of 1,231 men arbitrarily selected from a study conducted was used for comparison purposes. The General Health Questionnaire, a 28-item survey, was given to both groups (GHQ28). The 60-item Coping Style Inventory was used to assess the baseline cohort (COPE). According to the study, coping mechanisms affected whether a person was clinical or nonclinical. Constructive reframing, progress, and looking for helpful welfare benefits were the most set objectives linked to higher performance.
Contrarily, approaches more closely linked to a prognosis were introspection, absorption, and disengagement-focused. Up to ten times as many males in the cohort who had suffered abuse as children and grown into men in the population were characterized as “clinical.” The passage of time from the occurrence of abuse did not affect the men’s mental well-being. According to O’Leary’s (2009) findings, men who experienced sexual abuse as children may seek clinical diagnoses, although adaptive mechanisms may also significantly impact this consequence. While the timeframe of the abuse was not crucial, it appeared to be a key survival technique in reimagining the event. The results highlight how crucial it is for doctors to acknowledge that men’s mental problems may be a result of prior child sexual abuse. Internalization-focused coping techniques may be detrimental to long-term mental well-being. Significantly, some coping mechanisms have a mitigating impact on clinical diagnosis. Attention must be paid to aid agencies for victims that offer doable solutions and enable cognitive recovery to help males recognize personal resilience and the benefits of surviving.
Children’s psychological and social development is affected by the extent and frequency of family violence. Majali (2019) included 456 participants in a study to assess the impact of family violence on child development, both psychologically and socially. The study employed the Child Abuse Trauma Scale (CATS) with three options to establish the levels of domestic violence. The levels of trauma were registered as either high, medium, or low. The levels of trauma were highest in families with violence. The findings imply that many families physically punished their children as part of the parenting procedure. The study compared participant categories with severe, moderate, and mild mental traumas experienced as children. As a consequence, notable variations between groups were found in a variety of cultural adaption indices. The results did not show any discrepancies between the high and medium traumatic cases brought on by domestic abuse due to the lack of any specific significance level.
The overall findings indicate that family violence causes trauma in preschool children. Majali (2019) concluded that family abuse has a negative impact on a child’s psychosocial maturation. Early experiences with aggression have an immediate effect. It may also have long-term effects that frequently last throughout one’s life. It may aid in developing certain familial ties and particular life circumstances. The findings indicate that adolescents who experience high levels of domestic violence have limited cultural adaptation and sociopsychological family abuse. Respondents vary depending on the extent of childhood trauma brought on by a negative home environment and aggression. They adjust and tolerate people’s differences in diverging perceptual autonomy, self-impression, emotional security, and motivation. According to the findings, students who experienced much aggression as children are more likely to shift blame and instigate a fight. They incline toward tyranny and our identity, and either have low or high self-esteem.
The role of environment in childhood trauma is one of the least studied topics. Maikovich et al. (2008) studied the contribution of environmental factors to the Psychopathology Symptoms in children who had faced maltreatment. The study acknowledged the existence and contribution of previous studies on the role of family violence in traumatizing children. The objective was to explore how family environment factors, such as poverty, impacted the trauma symptoms in the children. The study incorporated 2925 participants aged between five and sixteen years and who had been previously exposed to violence. The study concluded that harsh environments had a direct and significant impact on how children responded to external changes in the environment. Traumatizing encounters, on the other hand, affected how children responded to situations internally.
Posttraumatic stress is common in children and adolescents exposed to family violence in their childhood. Vickerman and Margolin (2007) explored and discussed the concepts of family exposure to trauma and their implications on PTSD. The study appreciated the contribution of previous literature on the topic, which concurred on the domain malfunctioning in children previously exposed to family violence. The tools, methodologies, and frameworks presented are concerned with identifying, containing, and mitigating the impacts of trauma in people who experience family violence in their childhood. The study discussed the most appropriate interventions incorporated in trauma, focused on PTSD, and the accepted treatment choices. The intervention measures adopted included processing emotional distress, experimental treatment expeditions, education, social skills, and cognitive restructuring. The study was more of a literature review than a grounded research and summarized the widely accepted interventions and resolutions. While the efficacy of the intervention measures was not established in the study, it was assumed that they would effectively function as they had been recommended in other empirical studies. The study recommended future studies to scrutinize the efficacy of the existing solutions and interventions to mitigate of effects of trauma in people traumatized at an early age.
The importance of understanding the long-term effects of trauma exposure in early childhood has prompted numerous research ad experiments. Kaplow et al. (2006) were some researchers seeking to understand the consequences of trauma. The study’s objective was to establish how trauma affected later development in life. The case study focused on a girl who witnessed the murder of her parents at 19 months of age. The girl did not seem to have a recollection of the incident before reaching 11 years. At this age, she started exhibiting PTSD when reminded of the incident. The case study provided the basis for the discussion of how memories can affect children’s later verbal and nonverbal development. The study proposed the development of child support programs that could help them adapt to the devastating impacts of traumatizing thoughts and experiences. The recommended studies are intended to expand practitioners’ and scholars’ knowledge and understanding.
Lieberman and Korr (2007) explored the impact of trauma in an attempt to come up with a development framework for infancy and early childhood development framework. The study acknowledged the existing research and clinical documentation on the relationship tween traumatic events and infancy and young children’s development. The study associated trauma with psychological and physical factors that surpass children’s capacity to withstand. The authors associated research with death, injury, and psychological suppression in the affected children, their caregivers, or other people within their reach. The study concluded that shootings, car accidents, hurricanes, and drowning experiences as some of the most traumatic experiences affecting children. Violent victimization was noted as a pervasive and insidious trigger of childhood trauma. The study also noted that violence caused numerous child deaths and triggered trauma in those surrounding them. The study recommended further research on the impact of trauma on child development to establish how the existing interventions could be improved.
Culture plays a significant role in treating and supporting neglected and abused children. Cohen et al. (2001) empirically reviewed the essence of employing culture to handle neglected and abused children in different communities. The study highlighted the limited studies exploring the contribution of ethnicity, race, or culture in the treatment recommendations of maltreated or abused children. The attempted study suffered a lack of required data, misinterpretation of the key terms of failure to appreciate the contribution of the factors to cultural practices. The study explored the existing resources that associated culture with maltreatment and trauma. It also explored literature that associated culture, race, and ethnicity with the response to abusive practices, exposure and access to treatment, and the formalities in the exhibition of maltreatment symptoms. The study proposes the hypothesis that guided the research in interpreting the findings. The effect of cultural practices, community public policy, and cultural changes were also discussed. The research concluded that several studies explored the contribution of culture to formulating, choosing, and implementing interventions for maltreated and traumatized children.
Discussion
Having reviewed the empirical articles for the study, it is clear that it is due to the victimization of individuals during their childhood phase that inflicts trauma. Therefore, it is key for guardians to closely check their loved ones and determine whether they have issues they must tell. Neglecting a child’s trauma does not allow the incident to fade away as a memory because they tend to carry it within themselves, growing deeper within them till adulthood, when it cannot be easy to treat. As a universal objective of guardians and medical staff, what needs to be done is to use a blend of medication and therapy to treat people with PTSD, adults and children alike. It is best treated at the onset, during childhood, because the child will get to lead a trauma fee life. Promoting a violent-free environment to children as they develop is a crucial necessity to mitigate trauma, and social experts ought to intervene whence there seems to be chaos erupting in any household with children. Finally, developing such cultures will enable children to grow in trauma-free conditions. In any occurrence of traumatic incidents, teamwork between the community and medical and social experts towards handling it at best will mitigate their manifestation till adulthood. The study proposes further research on the challenges faced during the treatment of PTSD, for someone who has experienced theirs most recently and for one who has had it for a prolonged period (Cloitre et al., 2009). Also, the role of culture in mitigating traumatic impact in communities alongside their benefits.
Conclusion
The articles reviewed explored the impact and long-term effects of early childhood trauma on children’s development and the prevalence of PTSD. The studies employed different research methodologies, populations, and sample sizes and presented different conclusions depending on the research parameters. The articles used were empirical studies, exploring existing literature to harness available knowledge. This paper reviewed the articles, focusing on establishing the research implications and contribution to the scholarly communities, health care practitioners, and community wellbeing.
References
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