Background
Cyberstalking occurs through electronic means and disproportionately affects people who are or were in committed relationships. Cyberstalking a current or former intimate partner involves following them online. While the stereotypical male offender and female victim dynamic has long been associated with stalking, new evidence suggests that females are probably, if not more, likely to participate in cyberstalking and other disguised types of stalking. Experiencing intimate relationship cyberstalking has considerable harmful psychosocial and physical repercussions (March et al., 2020).
Cyberstalking victims often report suffering from a range of adverse mental, emotional, and physical health effects, such as increased anxiety and depression, disturbed sleep and eating habits, and symptoms similar to post-traumatic stress disorder. Attributable to ensuing serious consequences, cyberstalking against intimate partners is now classified as cyber dating maltreatment and intimate partner violence. Cyberstalking should be addressed because sometimes ex-lovers seek revenge because they feel wronged; on other occasions, they want to ruin their ex’s life.
Methods
Information Sources
The researcher used secondary data collection and qualitative analysis. The researcher conducted an exhaustive and systematic search for relevant journal articles after conducting electronic research for research studies. The search was limited to peer-reviewed studies published from 2020 to 2024. The journal articles will be retrieved from Google, ScienceDirect, PubMed, and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials.
Search Strategy
Cyberstalking, perpetration, women perpetrators, and intimate partner cyberstalking (IPCS) will encompass the study’s key terms. The Boolean operators “OR” and “AND” will be used to merge keywords as part of the search strategy.
Eligibility Criteria and Selection Process
Articles that particularly focus on or comprise IPCS will be included in the research study. Journal articles that have information on stalking or other forms of cyberstalking and fail to include IPCS will be excluded from the study. The researcher set an ambitious target of identifying competitive journals that would be excellent options for selecting articles and then wisely chose the best study. The researcher ensured the chosen journals were a good fit by carefully reviewing their goals and scope before using them.
Synthesis and Evaluation Strategy
To analyze, assess, and synthesize the material from the selected publications, the researcher utilized a literature review matrix (see appendix). In the matrix, laid out like a table, the rows represented various articles, and the columns detailed important aspects, including research methods, results, and themes. The researcher used the literature review matrix primarily to compare and contrast previous work on the subject and to identify trends, gaps, and inconsistencies in the available literature.
Results and Discussion
Results
There has been a dearth of research on female cyberstalkers and gender variations in stalking. One way to deepen one’s love relationship is to engage in romantic pursuit behaviors, such as approaching, pursuing, and interacting with a possible romantic partner (March et al., 2022). On the contrary, such actions could verge on being cyberstalking if they are excessively persistent, intrusive, or unwanted.
When an aggressor stalks a romantic interest with the intent to get to know them better or keep them as a romantic interest, it is called intimate partner stalking. The prevalence and dependence on technology for personal data and communication have heightened the likelihood of IPCS. Unfortunately, research into the specifics of IPCS is limited, as most studies have focused on traditional, overt stalking behavior.
Cyberstalking is often a type of harassment directed towards women and is usually thought of as a crime with a male-perpetrator and female-victim framework. Respondents are more inclined to find a male offender guilty when given otherwise identical stalking situations in which the only variable was the victim and offender’s gender (Wilson et al., 2023). However, females are more likely than males to engage in cyberstalking.
Contrary to popular belief, women are more prone to justify their cyberstalking behaviors as necessary love tactics. A forensic sample of adolescent offenders found that female offenders were more prone to covert stalking behaviors, such as harassing phone conversations and stalking via proxy. Compared to women, men were more prone to follow their victims physically, for example, loitering and doing visible acts of stalking, such as damaging property. Women are more prone to employ covert stalking tactics, including phone calls, according to prior investigations of forensic data of stalkers.
Discussion
Women are just as violent as men, according to studies on interpersonal violence, although they could show their aggression in masked ways. Cyberstalking against intimate relationships is more common among women than men (Reis et al., 2022). This confirms earlier research showing that females are highly prone to participate in covert stalking actions, like checking their partners’ emails (Gordon & Dardis, 2023). These cyberstalking behaviors may be perpetrated by women trying to build or maintain relationships by pursuing closeness. In particular, women are more likely to participate in passive and intrusive forms of cyberstalking, whether it is to find a short-term companion or to keep a long-term lover.
In the early phases of a relationship or in response to perceived threats to the connection, cyberstalking of a spouse or partner can be used to learn more about the partner covertly. Intimate partners are more often the targets of cyberstalking than strangers (Holmes et al., 2022). It is possible to discreetly monitor an intimate partner’s online activity on social media and other platforms.
Since most social networking profiles are public, monitoring an intimate partner’s online activity is permissible and even inevitable, as data is automatically added to users’ newsfeeds. IPCS can take on more overt forms, such as secretly monitoring an intimate partner’s social media accounts to see what they are up to, or it can be more subtle, like following them on Instagram. It can go as far as making false social media accounts to circumvent privacy settings and gaining access to an intimate partner’s (password-secured) email accounts.
Cyberstalking a prospective life partner could reveal details about their IQ, reliability, and emotional stability—qualities that are highly valued in a life partner. If one is in a committed relationship and suspects the partner of being unfaithful, cyberstalking them could help determine their location and what they are planning, saving significant money (Watkins et al., 2020). If one is only looking for a short-term partner, cyberstalking could help them learn more about their sexual habits, which could save them from sexually transmitted diseases or spending time and energy on someone who is not promiscuous enough. Obtaining mates, maintaining partners, and avoiding disease are likely to be among the many motives linked to IPCS.
Reasons Behind Cyberstalking in Women
One possible explanation for why women, particularly in committed relationships, are more likely to engage in cyberstalking than men could be an evolutionary bias. Women put great psychosocial effort into relationships that could lead to pregnancy (Gilbar et al., 2023). Due to their heightened interest, women probably look for details about possible partners that could help them avoid reproductive expenses like infidelity and diseases.
Cyberstalking intimate partners offers a safer, more accepted alternative to more conventional, direct techniques of information collection (such as physical stalking), which may be too dangerous for women. Therefore, it is possible that women’s propensity to cyberstalk their sexual partners more than men, especially in lasting relationships, is a low-risk mating technique they have developed to prevent expensive ‘mating mistakes’.
Role of the Dark Tetrad Traits in Cyberstalking Behavior
There has been an investigation into the correlation between stalker behavior and dark personality features, in addition to gender. Characterized by unique individual traits with intersecting themes of callous behavior, egocentrism, low agreeableness, and humility, the Dark Tetrad consists of characteristics of narcissism, sadism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy.
Machiavellianism
People who score high on the Machiavellianism trait are more likely to be deceitful and have a lower moral grounding, making them more likely to take advantage of others. They are prone to emotionally manipulating their partners in partnerships (Nuttman-Shwartz et al., 2023). A person with strong Machiavellian traits is always seeking danger, carefully considers their actions, and acts clandestinely to protect themselves. Similar to the subtle and cunning character of cyberstalking, the manipulative and deceitful behavior exhibited by Machiavellian qualities is also present.
Narcissism
A narcissist’s defining traits include an inflated feeling of superiority, entitlement, and self-importance. Cyberstalking behaviors are influenced by narcissism, wrath, and jealousy. People with elevated trait narcissism tend to react aggressively to ego threats. Narcissism is a potential indicator of cyberstalking behaviors in Dark Tetrads. Cyberstalking is more common among women who suffer from susceptible narcissism. Psychopathy is a trait of character characterized by an aggressive approach to interpersonal relationships, characterized by subtle kinds of disdain, revenge, and humiliation. It is based on a lack of empathy and compassion.
Psychopathy
People with high levels of psychopathy play psychological games in close interactions. There was a strong positive correlation between cyberstalking behaviors and characteristics of psychopathic personality disorder (Fissel et al., 2021). Furthermore, those who exhibited a high level of psychopathic tendencies increased the frequency, intensity, and variety of their stalker attacks. They also seemed remorseless about the consequences of their acts, targeting victims who were financially or professionally weak.
Sadism
Sadism trait, the last triad characteristic, is concerned with taking pleasure in causing mental and physical suffering to other people. Sexual assault and violence are indicators of everyday sadism, which is determined by a desire to be aggressive and harsh. A sadistically driven cyberstalker views a victim as deserving of harm and is oblivious to the reason behind their targeting, creating a direct correlation between sadism and stalking (Ahlgrim & Terrance, 2021). An extremely sadistic stalker may remove or rearrange the victim’s possessions as a means of leaving a trail of fear or demoralization, as well as physical proof of their contact with the victim.
There is a strong correlation between all Dark Tetrad qualities and the reasons and intentions behind cyberstalking behavior. Additionally, the traits help predict when someone would engage in cyberstalking behavior. There is a shortage of studies examining these characteristics as predictors of covert cyberstalking compared to overt stalking, mainly when IPCS is considered (Duffy et al., 2023). In addition, while trait narcissism is a strong cyberstalking behavior predictor, the sample’s ecological validity is in doubt.
Addressing Effects of Cyberstalking in Victims
Depressive symptoms, increased anxiety, and post-traumatic stress reactions are some of the psychological effects of harmful cyberstalking, which are similar to those of conventional stalking. The results show that victims form negative opinions about themselves, others, and the world because of the occurrence (Reiss et al., 2021). Thus, they should have access to psychological therapy if the effects escalate. Cyberstalking victims often experience hyper-vigilance, a diminished sense of agency, and a negative outlook on life in general.
Therapy
To address these issues, a cognitive-behavioral therapy program that targets the victim’s thoughts and beliefs can be beneficial. The primary goal should be to help the victim reevaluate the world through a more positive lens and restore their sense of self-worth. The victim’s avoidance responses/’safety’ actions should also be given equal attention by therapists, alongside the victim’s cognitions. Psychotherapies can help survivors of IPCS cope with the many challenges they face, such as the urgent need for protection and support, the breakup of an intimate relationship, feelings of social isolation, and difficulties in parenting.
Legal Actions
If cyberstalking continues, victims may wish to seek legal action by obtaining a protection order and reporting the incident to the police or a prosecutor. People being targeted should keep records of all interactions with law enforcement and the prosecutor’s office, as well as copies of police reports (Santos et al., 2024). The victim may wish to alter their contact information (email, phone number, or Internet service provider), change their address, or utilize the facilities provided by their phone or Internet provider to prevent the stalker from reaching them. Before making this decision, targets should thoroughly assess their safety and unique circumstances, as it could lead the stalker to intensify their conduct.
If a target moves or changes their contact information, they should take extra precautions to protect the new data. If consumers sign up for a service or store’s profile and give out their email address to receive coupons, their information can end up online (Olson et al., 2024). In addition, they can consider using privacy protection or encryption software to prevent the cyberstalker from obtaining their new information by hacking their computer. Numerous security software solutions and recommendations are available at every nearby computer store.
An effective way to prevent stalkers is through informal law enforcement action, such as having a detective engage the culprit. When the suspect does not have a severe mental condition and the victim and suspect have a previous relationship, informal law enforcement involvement is most effective (Maftei & Dănilă, 2023). When asked what helped them stop being stalked, many victims affirm that informal interventions from the judicial system were more effective than official ones.
Whereas a few victims state that the stalking stopped once the legal system intervened, many assert that it stopped after the perpetrator got a warning from the police. Criminal justice personnel handling cases involving stalking should undergo thorough domestic violence competence training to better protect victims and hold offenders accountable. Additionally, states should enact more stringent anti-stalking legislation.
References
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Fissel, E. R., Fisher, B. S., & Nedelec, J. L. (2021). Cyberstalking perpetration among young adults: An assessment of the effects of low self-control and moral disengagement. Crime & Delinquency, 67(12), 1935-1961.
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