Introduction
Piaget and Erikson investigated different aspects of child habits, deeds, and thought procedures. Piaget’s theories include schema formation theory and the cognitive development theory, while Erickson’s theory is the psychosocial theory of development. This paper investigates how their hypotheses contrast and compare.
Piaget’s Schema Formation Theory
Individuals can form intellectual representations of their surroundings using cognitive structures. Schemas are “units” of understanding one element of the world, like artifacts, doings, and mental ideas. Piaget described the significance of schemas in intellectual growth and clarified how they are shaped or obtained. Humans, it is assumed, store such cognitive structures and utilize them when necessary (Sanghvi, 2020). The schemas outlined by Piaget are typically simpler than this, particularly those used by babies. He presented how a child’s schemas get more abundant and intricate as he gets older. Piaget proposed that even before they have acquired numerous chances to encounter the universe, newborn babies have quite a tiny percentage of inbuilt schemas (Sanghvi, 2020). These prenatal schemas are the intellectual assemblies that underpin innate reflexes in genetically predisposed individuals.
Adaptation
Adaptation is the practice through which an infant’s mental designs of the ecosphere change to far more precisely represent how the universe truly is. Humans are in a state of equilibrium when their existing schemas can clarify what they construe across them. Nevertheless, when people encounter a new scenario they cannot describe, it generates disequilibrium, an uncomfortable feeling that people try to avoid, providing an incentive to learn. As per Piaget, restructuring to advanced levels is difficult; the child should reconsider their worldview (Piaget, 1936). The perception of mental struggle is a crucial component of the course. The child realizes that he has conflicting perspectives on a circumstance that cannot be correct; this stage is known as disequilibrium. Assimilation, according to Piaget, is the mental process of assimilating new knowledge into present cerebral structures, preconceptions, and comprehension. The additional knowledge does not affect people’s general opinions and perceptions of the world. As outlined by Piaget, accommodation is the mental ability to reconsider existing intellectual constructs, conceptions, and comprehension to assimilate additional knowledge (Piaget, 1936). This transpires when the general schema no longer works and should be improved to handle a new scenario or object.
Piaget’s Stages of Development Theory
According to Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, insight evolves as children develop (Piaget, 1936). A child’s intellectual growth involves more than just gaining information; the child must also generate or build a cerebral representation of the universe. Toddlers go through various phases of cognitive development as a consequence of the contact of personal capabilities and situational factors, as demonstrated in Figure 2. According to Piaget’s theory of cognitive growth, children grow via four phases of cognitive development that mirror the increasing erudition of their feelings (Piaget, 1936). Each child experiences the stages similarly, and physiological transition and interaction with their surroundings ascertain children’s development. The child’s cognition is substantially different at every phase of evolution, implying that every stage entails a distinct level of intelligence.
Sensorimotor Stage 1
The phase of reflex acts is the initial sub-stage, the first month of life. The neonate uses innate reflex deeds to react to exterior stimuli. Infants gain knowledge regarding their surroundings via reflexes which include sucking, trying to reach, and clutching. The application of this response to stimuli ultimately grows more intentional and meaningful.
Sensorimotor Stage 2
The primary circular reactions phase is the second sub-stage. The baby starts to fully engage his body in a certain form of a reiterated task in the next three months. A child may inadvertently participate in behavior they find attractive, such as enunciation (Babakr et al., 2019). This attraction inspires the baby to attempt again and assists the infant in learning fresh conduct that happened accidentally. Since it concentrates on the child’s own physique, the conduct is categorized as circular and major.
Sensorimotor Stage 3
The third sub-phase is the secondary circular reaction phase. The infant starts relating with items in his surroundings. Originally, the child engages with objects, such as a crib mobile, by mistake, but these relations with the items become purposeful and frequent. The baby becomes increasingly active in the external globe and delights in being capable of making things eventuate. When sitting on the floor, the child can slam two caps together from the cabinet, which piques the baby’s involvement.
Sensorimotor Stage 4
The fourth sub-phase is the phase of secondary scheme coordination. To accomplish a particular goal, the child incorporates these elementary reflexes and utilizes organization and collaboration. The baby can now mimic the habits of others and foresee future proceedings. Due to sustained prefrontal cortex development, the child may be able to have an idea and conduct a scheduled, objective-directed exercise. The baby coordinates external and internal events to accomplish a predetermined goal.
Sensorimotor Stage 5
The fifth sub-phase is the tertiary circular reaction phase. The child is regarded as a young scientist and begins to explore the universe through experimentation, employing muscle control and scheduling skills. The child’s active participation in trial and error aids him in learning about their surroundings.
Finally, there is the commencement of symbolic thought in sub-phase six. The sensorimotor era reaches its conclusion when a symbolic or referential concept appears. The child now understands that artifacts can be employed to represent ideas. Furthermore, the pupil can use mental techniques to solve issues, recall and replicate something noticed days previously, and participate in children’s games. This preliminary transformation from a “hands-on” strategy to gaining the world’s knowledge to a more perceived reality of sub-stage six signifies the start of preoperational thought.
Preoperational Stage
As they gain insight into the world all over them, they progress to the point of being able to use reasoning and imagination. Throughout this time, children start to think symbolically but do not employ cognitive processes. The child’s development involves gaining an understanding of the environment via adaptation and progressing to the concrete phase, which allows the use of logical thought (Babakr et al., 2019). By the age of seven, children can use their fantasies and perform make-believe. At the culmination of this phase, children can intellectually depict objects and events; this is known as semiotic activity.
Preoperational Stage Characteristics
Symbolic representations occur between 2 and 3 years when the child realizes that phrases and artifacts are emblems for something else. Dialect is the most common indicator of symbolism displayed by young children (Babakr et al., 2019). Egocentrism alludes to a child’s incapability to perceive a circumstance from another person’s viewpoint. The self-centered child trusts everybody else sees, hears, and feels the same way he does. Centration refers to concentrating on one facet of a scenario at a period. Decentering transpires when a baby can focus on one element of a predicament at the same time. The faith that humans create some elements of the natural world is known as artificialism.
At the onset of this phase, toddlers often take part in parallel play. They regularly play within the same space as other children, but they play beside them instead of with them. Toddlers frequently pretend to be individuals they are not, and they might do so using objects that signify real-life items; they may also generate a fictional playfellow. The incapability to overturn the orientation of a series of actions back to their preliminary step is referred to as irreversibility. The assumption that inert entities have sentient desires and emotions is known as animism. Piaget (1929) implied that the universe of essence is real, conscious, and has an intent for the preoperational child.
Concrete Operations Stage
Since it marks the start of rational or operational thought, Piaget regarded the concrete phase as a significant revolving spot in the child’s intellectual development (Babakr et al., 2019). The child is now old enough to employ logical reasoning or processes, but only on material things. The skills of reversibility, conservation, transitivity, class inclusion, and seriation are taught to children. However, while children can fix issues logically, they are sometimes capable of thinking conceptually or conceivably.
Conservation is the comprehension that a substance can remain unchanged in terms of amount even if it appears distinct. As children’s encounters and vocabulary expand, they develop conceptual frameworks and can categorize artifacts in various ways. They are also familiar with classification groupings and can classify and sub-classify items. The ability to reverse deeds is referred to as reversibility. The child discovers that particular altered objects can be restored to their natural position.
Seriation is when the concrete operational baby systematically organizes objects across a quantitative dimension, like magnitude or weight. Understanding how artifacts are connected is referred to as transitivity. Decentration occurs when concrete operational children no longer concentrate solely on one aspect of any artifact but rather recognize adjustments in all facets; this enables sustainability to occur.
Formal Operational Stage
Adolescents can comprehend abstract concepts without physical allusion in the formal operational stage. They can now ponder complex ideas like elegance, love, liberty, and moral standards. The adolescent is no longer restricted by what can be observed or heard straight. Furthermore, whereas younger pupils fix issues via experimentation, adolescents use hypothetical-deductive justification, which involves developing suppositions premised on what could rationally happen. They can anticipate all the potentials in a predicament and then assess them methodically. They can now participate in real scientific reasoning; acknowledging hypothetical situations is also part of formal operational thinking.
Erickson’s Psychosocial Theory of Development
Erikson thought that one’s personality developed in phases. The advancement of ego identity is a fundamental constituent of Erikson’s psychosocial development theory. Ego identity is the sentient logic of oneself that individuals grow via social contact. As per Erikson, the human ego authenticity is continuously evolving due to new knowledge and experiences gained through personal encounters with others (Erickson, 1963). Erikson proposed that, in addition to ego identity, a feeling of professionalism inspires actions and conduct (Jones & Waite-Stupiansky, 2022). Erikson’s concept is divided into phases; in which each is preoccupied with being proficient in a specific domain of life. If the stage is adequately managed, the individual will experience a feeling of prowess, which he called ego resilience or ego performance. If the phase is improperly handled, the individual will feel insufficient. Erikson supposed that persons encounter a dispute at every phase that marks a revolving point in their advancement. According to Erikson, these disputes focus on creating or failing to establish a psychological quality (Erickson, 1963). The possibility for individual development is high throughout these instances, but so is the possibility of failure.
Erickson’s eight stages of development
Erikson’s concept of psychosocial development’s first stage occurs between parturition and one year of age and represents the most crucial period of life. Erikson’s theory of development’s second stage occurs between 2 and 3 years. The third phase is between the ages of 3 and 5 years. The fourth stage takes place between the ages of 6 and 11 years. The fifth phase comes between the ages of 12 and 18 years. The sixth stage takes place between the ages of 19 and 40 (Jones & Waite-Stupiansky, 2022). The seventh stage occurs between the ages of 40 and 65. The eighth stage occurs between the age of 65 and death. Every phase is distinguished by a conflict or challenge that must be overcome before proceeding to the next.
Trust vs. Mistrust
Erik Erikson’s concept of psychosocial advancement begins with the trust versus mistrust phase. As per Erikson, this is the most significant stage of the baby’s life because it influences their worldview and overall personality. Erikson argued that premature trust trends allow pupils to create a firm basis of trust that is vital for their emotional and social growth. An infant will feel safe in the universe if they effectively build trust. Children raised by steadily untrustworthy, uncertain parental figures who do not meet such basic wants, on the other hand, acquire a general feeling of mistrust. Mistrust can make children afraid, confused, and nervous, making it challenging to establish meaningful relationships. This might result in the absence of welfare protection, exclusion, and solitude. The phase of trust versus mistrust establishes the foundation for development. This phase can have long-term consequences for a person’s life.
Autonomy vs. Shame
The second phase of Erik Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development is autonomy versus doubt and shame. Toddlers at this level, as per Erikson, are concentrating on gaining a resilient sense of self-regulation. The child can grow and become more agile and explore new abilities and competencies, such as putting on garments and shoes and interacting with toys. Such aptitudes exhibit the child’s developing sense of autonomy (Jones & Waite-Stupiansky, 2022). The primary task of a child is to conquer the battle between independence, shame, and doubt by continuing to work to generate freedom. If a child is deprived of the chance to intervene in the surroundings, he may start to doubt his skills, resulting in reduced self-esteem and sensations of shame.
Initiative vs. Guilt
When children reach the early learning stage, they can implement new ideas and affirm dominance over their surroundings via social relationships and play. Pre-schoolers, as per Erikson, should mitigate the assignment of initiative versus guilt (Erickson, 1963). Pre-school children can grasp this undertaking by learning to set and accomplish goals while relating with each other. When guardians permit a pupil to discover limits and endorse their preference, the child gains effort, a sensation of aspiration, and obligation (Jones & Waite-Stupiansky, 2022). These children will gain self-esteem and a sensation of meaning. With their intervention failing or being curtailed by overbearing parents, those who fail at this phase might acquire feelings of guilt.
Industry vs. Inferiority
Pupils are at the phase where they can read and write and do the math and other errands by themselves. Instructors play a crucial part in the pupil’s growth as they teach specific skills to the individual. At this point, the child’s social circle will take on inordinate significance and will be a leading basis of self-worth for the pupil. The child now believes in the need to achieve approval by exhibiting particular skills that the community values, and they start to build a sense of superiority in their attainments. When children are motivated and rewarded for their action plan, they start feeling more productive and secure in accomplishing their objectives (Jones & Waite-Stupiansky, 2022). If this venture is not supported, if teachers or parents limit it, the pupils start to feel inferior, question their abilities, and may fail to achieve their maximum ability. Some weaknesses may be needed for the pupil to develop humbleness. Again, equity of professionalism and decency is compulsory; this phase’s achievement will lead to the virtue of expertise.
Identity vs. Role Confusion
The transformation from childhood into adulthood is critical throughout adolescence. This is a crucial phase of growth in which the child should discover the positions he will play as an adult. Children become more self-sufficient and begin considering their future based on profession, connections, households, and living conditions; a person desires to be a member of the community and to accommodate. The youth mind is mainly a moratorium of the mind, a socio-emotional phase between childhood and adulthood, and a transition between moral behavior acquired as a child and the etiquette established by the individual (Jones & Waite-Stupiansky, 2022). Erikson suggests that two personalities are at exertion: consensual and vocational. During this level, the adolescent will reevaluate his authenticity and endeavor to figure out what he is.
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Persons in their twenties to early forties worry about intimacy versus isolation. Individuals are willing to share their experiences with others once they have established a sense of identity in adolescence. Nevertheless, if the preceding phases are adequately addressed, young adults could be able to build and keep strong partnerships with others. According to Erikson, humans must possess a powerful sense of themselves to form viable close relationships. Individuals who fail to establish a healthy self-concept during their teenage years may feel isolated and emotionally secluded.
Generativity vs. Stagnation
In psychology, generativity refers to leaving one’s contribution to the universe by generating or fostering items that will overshadow a being. Individuals in their forties and fifties strongly wish to produce or nourish objects that will outlive them, such as guiding or creating significant modifications to help others. Individuals contribute to society by raising their children, working effectively, and participating in local organizations and events. Humans gain a feeling of belonging to a broader context via generativity (Jones & Waite-Stupiansky, 2022). Loss may result in a superficial engagement in the universe, whereas achievement yields sentiments of effectiveness and attainment. They get to be constant and unconstructive because they cannot figure out how to contribute. These people may feel disengaged from their society and humanity in general; this stage’s achievement will generate the act of care.
Ego Integrity vs. Despair
Within this period, individuals reflect on their achievements and can create honesty if they believe they are living a fulfilled life. They are inclined to slow their efficiency and learn about life as a retiree as they grow older (65+ years) and become elder citizens. Erikson held that if people saw their lives as ineffective, felt guilty about their history, or failed to achieve their lifetime objectives, they would get displeased with life and grow anguish, frequently leading to despair and disillusionment (Erickson, 1963). This phase’s victory would then generate the character of wisdom. Wisdom permits a person to refer fondly to their existence with a feeling of completion and to face death without dread (Jones & Waite-Stupiansky, 2022). Wise individuals do not have a relentless condition of ego integrity; as an alternative, they encounter both ego honesty and desperation.
Similarities of Piaget’s and Erickson’s Theories
The commonalities between Erikson’s and Piaget’s concepts in terms of early childhood development include an interpretation of psychosocial development using stages of the procedures. For example, the two theories expound on the various changes in a child’s behavior as they age. The stages also contain a description of the phase’s successes and shortcomings. Each stage, for example, encompasses some activities that an infant cannot complete owing to their limited mental capabilities. Furthermore, the procedures are interconnected, so if a child fails in one phase, he or she is likely to fail in the subsequent one. Other commonalities include the phase’s personality development. Character growth is influenced by the surrounding world, which impacts knowledge acquisition. Both Piaget and Erikson concluded that good parenting, instead of nature, determines self-identity. They presume that ecologic, interpersonal, and family-related conditions shape character. These two theories advocate that toddlers are influenced by their environment while learning. Both developmental psychologists introduced a unique viewpoint and culture to their respective fields. Piaget used biologically inspired suggestions to demonstrate children’s development. In his concept, Erickson established ego, a phrase coined by Freud’s psychoanalysis.
Piaget’s first phase occurs within the first two years of a child’s life, whereas Erickson’s first phase explains the initial year. Piaget asserts that children discover how to move and utilize their bodies in the sensorimotor stage. At the same time, Erickson explains how a child knows to confide his atmosphere and how it assists a child develop as a person. Piaget and Erickson emphasize the significance of agility and innate behavior in the first years of life. Both hypotheses downplay the significance of biological factors during puberty and emphasize the significance of self-concept growth in adolescence. Erickson’s and Piaget’s final phase, known as the formal stage, is adolescence.
Differences between the Two Theories
Erikson’s theory divides the existence development cycle into eight steps. He claims that a person’s advancement is influenced by their surroundings. Every one of the stages involves a disaster, and achievement is determined by how the recession is handled. Individuals experience less uncertainty as they advance through the stages. These difficulties occur throughout a person’s life, from the first phase to old age. Piaget’s theory investigates a human’s thinking patterns. His focus is primarily on the early stages before the age of 12. Cognitive abilities develop from childhood to the operational stage when abstract sentiments create meaning. The labeling of the phases symbolizes the child’s and adult’s cognitive ability.
Notwithstanding the utilization of phases, they vary in scheduling; Erikson’s theory states that the initial stage expires at one year, whereas Piaget believes that the first phase ends at the age of two years. In their teenage years, their perspectives on the development phase differ substantially. Piaget considers adolescents to be conscious creatures with rational ideas. Erikson contends that at this level, the adolescent is concerned with autonomy in judgment, connections, and self-discovery.
The speculations also differ in their approach to the phases. As per Piaget, a person does not have to go through each stage of his concept; a person impacts their surroundings. In Piaget’s theory, involvements govern advancement, whereas Erikson views going across all phases up to old age as vital in clarifying the growth course.
Conclusion
Combining the two concepts to advise how to instruct effectively and enlighten children is the most effective way to understand child psychology comprehensively. Given that emotional and cognitive growth could be affected by various variables and numerous phases that occur, Piaget’s and Erikson’s observations are constructive and significant.
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