The Work of the Phonological Loop in Stressed People with ADHD

Project Summary

Many studies discuss various components and processes of memory, including one of its key categories – working memory. The latter includes the phonological loop, which is the faculty responsible for the temporal rehearsal and memorization of information received verbally or visually. While some researchers explore the relationships between the work of the phonological loop and emotions, ADHD, and aging, there are specific gaps and inconsistencies in knowledge. This study will be an experiment involving 100 participants and aims to investigate how negative emotions experienced by ADHD persons affect the phonological loop and how these effects alter with aging.

BackgroundContext and Purpose of the Study

Memory and its various components play an extremely essential role in people’s everyday activities. However, there are some gaps in knowledge about the functionality of the phonological loop under specific circumstances. The purpose of this study is to conduct a literature review, summarizing the most important information available about memory and the phonological loop. Then, this project will intend to fill the identified gaps in knowledge.

Literature Review

There is a vast number of credible articles and research projects that explore memory in general and focus on the phonological loop in working memory. This section of the paper is devoted to reviewing the existing literature in order to then identify relevant gaps in knowledge. Although the topic has been studied for decades, and numerous experiences have been conducted in order to better understand the working memory and the phonological loop, particular concepts, connections, or processes still remain either not proven or unknown.

Memory

To begin with, one may say that it is essential to define memory as the process or faculty that plays significant roles in cognitive psychology. Since this is a rather broad topic, after the definition and basic information about memory in general are provided, the research area will be narrowed. First of all, according to Zlotnik and Vansintjan (2019), “memory is today defined in psychology as the faculty of encoding, storing, and retrieving information” (p. 2). It is divided into three basic categories, including long-term memory, being able to store indefinite amounts of information; short-term, which can only hold limited volumes of data; and sensory memory, which works subconsciously and cannot be controlled by a person (Baddeley & Hitch, 2019; Zlotnik & Vansintjan, 2019). Several different models propose how memories are consolidated in humans’ cognition, while people’s capacity to store such large volumes of data refers to their ability to process information rapidly and reduce disorder (Baddeley & Larsen, 2007; Zlotnik & Vansintjan, 2019). In addition to the three mentioned categories of memory, there is another one.

Working Memory

Short-term and working memory are often confused with each other, but there are specific characteristics and attributes that allow us to differentiate between them. Thus, according to Cowan (2008), current literature agrees that the former type of memory, unlike the long-term one, demonstrates chunk capacity limits and temporal decay. At the same time, there are three somewhat discrepant ways to define and approach working memory. Thus, it can be viewed “as short-term memory applied to cognitive tasks, as a multi-component system that holds and manipulates information in short-term memory, and as the use of attention to manage short-term memory” (Cowan, 2008, p. 323). In other words, different cognitive functions are assigned by researchers to these categories of memory, with the short-term referring to the maintenance of information and the working memory including maintenance plus the manipulation of data (Aben et al., 2013). Several groups of functions are believed to be involved in working memory, and the phonological loop is among them.

The Phonological Loop

A component of working memory that can temporarily manipulate and hold auditory information is known as the phonological loop. As indicated by Baddeley and Hitch in 1974, “the phonological loop is the second group of functions in working memory that deals with spoken and written production and plays a critical role in rehearsing the information when individuals memorize” (as cited in Litvinenko & Ashrapova, 2020, p. 895). Thus, one may compare the phonological loop to a person’s ‘inner voice’ that helps to memorize information like numbers, names, new words, or others (Kouvatsou et al., 2022). This voice consists of two parts, with the first relating to the perception of speech and maintaining the received information in the form of speech for a very short interval of time, which is about one or two seconds (Baddeley & Hitch, 2019). This part is known as the “phonological store,” while the second part refers to the “articulatory control process” (Litvinenko & Ashrapova, 2020, p. 895). The latter is responsible for producing speech and rehearsing the relevant data from the phonological store.

One of the key values of the phonological loop is precisely its function of preventing the fading of information received seconds ago. In other words, if one needs to write down a telephone number but cannot find a pen, the numbers are saved in their temporary store for one or two seconds before this information disappears from memory (Baddeley & Hitch, 2019). However, what the phonological loop allows for is a slightly longer retention of information by verbally reproducing it several times in a row until the retention itself loses its relevance (Litvinenko & Ashrapova, 2020; Maziero et al., 2020). To be more precise, while looking for a pen, the person should repeat the telephone number a couple of times to remember it better by refreshing the memory trace, as indicated by Baddeley and Hitch (2019). However, when the pen is found, and the need to save the information in memory is no longer relevant, one forgets the number after some time, which is usually quite a short period. This is a great example of how the phonological loop is a component of the working memory, and the latter is a part of the short-term memory but with the capacity to last slightly longer.

Since the 1960s, there have been attempts to answer a number of questions related to the phonological loop. First, researchers faced difficulty defining the nature of this phenomenon’s storage code, proposing it to be an acoustic, articulatory, phonemic, or phonological store (Baddeley & Hitch, 2019). Then, they also found it crucial to investigate whether visual information can be processed by the systems of the phonological loop, determining that precisely the articulatory control process can “transfer visually presented verbal material into the phonological store by subvocalization,” expanding the features and functions of this component of the working memory (Martín-Loeches et al., 1997, p. 471). While proper answers to these questions are found by researchers, there are some topics that are still a cause for concern for scientists and cognitive psychologists because there is little research and assumptions about them.

One such area for exploration is the relationships between the phonological loop’s effectiveness and the emotions one experiences at the moment of trying to process information. Indeed, it is evident that emotions and psychological states such as shame, anxiety, guilt, and others can severely affect an individual’s ‘external’ behavior and reactions. However, the ‘inner’ systems and processes also undeniably get affected by the experienced adverse emotions, and researchers are interested in how the work of the phonological loop can be altered (Deschamps et al., 2020). For example, according to Litvinenko and Ashrapova (2020), it is known now that emotional state influences the ability and ways of a person to process, exchange, and adapt the information they receive. Noticeably, “despite the adaptive role of emotions, it may impair the ability to monitor and comprehend the information that should be processed,” which proves that the phonological loop’s functions may become ineffective for a while (Litvinenko & Ashrapova, 2020, p. 897). Further, Safarinia et al. (2019) state that strong feelings like shame and guilt may significantly decrease the performance of working memory and the phonological loop in particular. Derakshan and Eysenck (2010) notice that there is inconsistency in previous research results: some indicate no effects of anxiety on the phonological loop functions, and some find strong negative connections. Overall, there are not enough articles exploring these relationships, meaning that this may be the first relevant gap in knowledge.

Next, it is essential to consider some psychological disorders that can be related to high emotional sensitivity. For example, people diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) tend to react more emotionally to stressful situations or even in ordinary circumstances (Bernstein, 2021; Trinczer & Shalev, 2018). As noticed by researchers, it is common for individuals with ADHD to experience intense shame, guilt, anger, and sadness, as well as many other positive and negative feelings (Bernstein, 2021). Additionally, some ADHD individuals have difficulty maintaining attention, which is also expected to reduce the functionality of their phonological loop (Fabio et al., 2020). Karatekin (2004) mentions that children with ADHD “do not have generalized impairments in working memory” and “rehearse verbal and spatial information in the same manner as healthy children” (p. 912). However, the author’s study has two severe limitations related to the participants’ age and emotions, meaning that it is impossible to consider the results relevant because it is unknown whether these abilities in ADHD individuals change with age or when they experience stress and other adverse states.

Some other studies tend to associate ADHD patients with decreased phonological loop functions. Thus, Ackermann et al. (2018) highlight the need to provide ADHD children with Cognitive Working Memory Training (CWMT) to enhance the work of their phonological loop. Neurofeedback training is considered effective by Dobrakowski and Łebecka (2020), who also see a strong correlation between the ADHD diagnosis and less efficient work of the phonological loop, similar to Borkowska and Zawadzka (2008). Angelopoulou and Drigas (2021) also attempted to spot a certain connection between working memory and attention. Further, according to Roodenrys et al. (2001), “the majority of evidence regarding phonological loop functioning in ADHD and RD children supports the assertion that ADHD children, in comparison with RD children, are not impaired in phonological loop functioning” (p. 327). However, the authors do not support this claim, stating that ADHD individuals also face severe difficulty when their phonological loop is activated.

Finally, as may be evident from the previous paragraph, another topic that some researchers concentrate on is reviewing the relationship between the work of the phonological loop and aging. Thus, several studies have determined that there is a specific decline in the work of the phonological loop in seniors (Meguro et al., 2000; Van der Linden et al., 1994). However, other authors indicate that there are no apparent associations between aging and reduced capacity of the phonological loop, stating that there are no issues in the latter (Grégoire & Van der Linden, 1997; Nittrouer & Lowenstein, 2015; Peters et al., 2007). Therefore, there is a need to address this inconsistency in findings.

Relevant Gaps in Knowledge

To sum up, there are three basic gaps in the information available about the work of the phonological loop. First, there is not enough research about the particular effects of negative emotions on the functioning of this component of the working memory. Second, scholars and cognitive psychologists disagree on whether people with ADHD have decreased functionality of the phonological loop as compared with individuals without this disorder. Finally, there is still an ongoing debate about whether there is a relationship between aging and reduced capacity of the phonological loop.

Rationale, Aims, and Objectives

This study will benefit people with ADHD as it will find whether their emotional states can affect the work of their phonological loop, as well as determine whether they need to improve their working memory, especially as they age, which is the aim of this study. The objectives of this project are the following:

• Compare the work of the phonological loop in people of different ages with and without ADHD in stressful circumstances.
• Measure the extent to which the rehearsal and memorization of information changes depending on whether an ADHD person is or is not experiencing negative emotions.

Finally, this study hypothesizes that there is a decline in the work of the phonological loop among ADHD individuals, especially in stressful situations or when they experience negative emotions, and this decline deteriorates with aging.

Methods

To begin with, the type of study to be conducted is the experimental one, and the true experiment design will be used, which will allow for the manipulation of one variable to identify how it affects other variables. Stressful circumstances, experienced emotions, and verbal tasks provided will be the independent variables, while the work of the phonological loop is the dependent variable. The intended sample will include participants from different age groups with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. One may say that these participants will represent a larger population and make it possible to determine whether there are any effects of the presence of the ADHD diagnosis and excessive negative emotions of the work of the phonological loop. Additionally, the intended sample will allow for the identification of the connection between aging and the functionality of this component of the working memory, both in individuals with and without mental disorders.

Next, it is essential to discuss the inclusion and exclusion criteria that will be used to find the required number of participants. First of all, in order not to interfere with the expected results and not to have additional impacts on the work of the phonological loop, individuals with disorders other than ADHD will not be able to participate in the study, including those seniors with dementia, Alzheimer’s, or other conditions. What is more, people who tend to experience frequent episodes of depression will also not be included in the experiment to ensure their own mental safety and the reliability of the study’s results. Participants will be between sixteen and seventy years of age, and those who are younger than eighteen will need to provide parents’ or guardians’ agreement for participation. Finally, another exclusion criterion is the inability to speak English fluently because the experiment will be conducted in this language. Other than that, there will be no strict exclusion criteria, so individuals of all genders and ethnicities will be welcome to participate. The experiment will seek to include an equal number of persons with and without ADHD, as well as an equal number of individuals aged between 16 and 30, 31 and 45, and 46 and 70.

To recruit participants, purposive sampling should be used because there is a need to select specific persons with ADHD. As stated by Campbell et al. (2020), purposive sampling is “used to select respondents that are most likely to yield appropriate and useful information” (pp. 653-654). Potential participants will be found with the help of social media or personal acquaintances. One group of participants will include persons of different ages with and without ADHD, being subjected to specific stressful events and then having to complete an auditory task and a dual n-back test variant. The latter is used precisely to evaluate the work of the phonological loop (Dobrakowski & Łebecka, 2020). The control group, also consisting of both ADHD and non-ADHD participants, will complete the same tasks but not in stressful circumstances.

Statistical Analysis

The sample size for this study will be 200 participants, with the number of males and females and ADHD and non-ADHD individuals being equal. While this is not a large sample size, especially considering the total number of Americans with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, it should be quite enough to reach saturation (Serdar et al., 2021). What is more, some recent studies observed earlier in the paper included far fewer participants, but considering the breadth of the research question, the sample size is larger.

Further, it is most likely that bivariate descriptive statistics will be reported because data will be collected on more than one variable. In other words, it will be investigated whether people with ADHD have reduced functionality of the phonological loop when experiencing negative emotions and how this alters with aging. A t-test will be conducted for the primary and control groups, and for the analysis of data, the IBM SPSS Statistics 23 software will be used. Subgroup analyses are relevant for this study because there are several variables, and data will be additionally divided and compared based on participants’ age and emotional state, and the ANOVA test will be used (Burke et al., 2015). Finally, the data will be presented in different tables and graphics, showing the findings and correlation between the variables.

Ethical Consideration and Confidentiality

Concerning this particular study, it is of increased importance to pay attention to ethics because some participants will be subjected to stressful circumstances. First, all individuals participating in the experiment should be informed that their responses and performance in tests will be anonymous and used only for the purposes of the study, without uncovering the names and backgrounds (Arifin, 2018). In this case, it is more likely that participants will be more relaxed when completing the tasks, and the results will be more reliable. Second, the selected individuals should be aware that their participation is voluntary and can be terminated at any time they wish, especially if anything in the process goes not as intended (Arifin, 2018). Similarly, neither their participation in general nor their performance will affect their future or be used as the basis for judgment.

In order to gain ethical approval, all potential risks for the participants will be addressed prior to conducting the study, and their safety will be ensured. Further, a research ethics committee will be approached to first determine the required documents to submit and then to seek approval. Finally, the confidentiality of information will be maintained throughout the research project with the use of some basic methods. Thus, all electronic data will be stored in systems protected by strong passwords, and encryption will be used for the transportation of the information. No personally identifiable information will be collected during the experiment, and all the received data will only be accessed by researchers involved in the project.

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