Introduction
Theoretical frameworks and research coexist in a mutually beneficial relationship where theories are based on previous research and consequently inform research directions in the future. Indeed, in the field of psychology, the use of theories is pivotal for explaining and investigating a variety of issues marking human psychological, developmental, or social manifestations of life. Both Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson worked on the development of well-supported models that explain the processes of human development as personalities and social entities. Since their introduction to psychological science, the ideas generated by the two theorists have spread across the global community of psychologists and sociologists.
They have been supported by numerous consecutive research studies that helped identify and explain certain crises within the human lifespan, as well as the problematic issues in personality development. Moreover, Erikson’s and Freud’s theories provided a solid background for research in the field of child and family development by generating discussions of upbringing principles, family relations forming, and social conflict or injustice resolution. Thus, this paper explores the scholarly research that supports developmental theories and is based on Erikson’s and Freud’s ideas pertaining to child and family development.
Scholarly Research Supporting Theories and Related Developmental Issues
Psychological theories of human development have been introduced by psychologists, sociologists, and neurologists in an attempt to conceptualize and explain the underlying triggers of human development and behavior. Most importantly, such theoretical models allow for setting fundamental principles and paradigms of scientific contextual thinking about human lifespan development from the perspective of a multitude of domains comprising an individual’s life. Indeed, Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development holds that there are eight consecutive stages of human development that occur dynamically and are marked by conflicts between obtaining a virtue and developing a complex (Maree, 2022).
These stages include trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame and doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, and generativity vs. stagnation (Maree, 2022; Orenstein & Lewis, 2021). This theory informs the particularities of each stage’s impact on the consecutive development of an individual, thus helping a therapist explain the causes of psychosocial issues and find adequate solutions.
Similarly, Sigmund Freud’s introduction of psychoanalysis into the psychological field has been a turning point in understanding personality development. This neurologist argued that a child develops in accordance with unconscious sexual energy and aggression that precondition human personality forming (Bower, 2018). The argument in favor of an unconscious mind made by Freud has changed the cultural and scientific beliefs about human behavior and lifespan development, which has enabled profound advancements in psychology over consecutive years (Zhang, 2020). Both these theoretical models have been supported by research throughout the years of their existence, which has produced a significant body of literature justifying the relevance of Freud’s and Erikson’s ideas in the contemporary field of psychology in general and child and family development in particular.
Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Developmental Theory
Multiple research articles have been published to support the psychosocial theory developed by Erik Erikson. In particular, the theory holds that one’s life cycle development is inherently connected with an individual’s social integration and forming of relationships, through which a person can form their identity (Erskine, 2019). In this regard, the use of stage-based development, where a conflict between a virtue and a complex predetermines the outcomes for an individual’s consecutive behavior and identity, informs therapeutic decision-making.
Adults’ psychological issues stem from their childhood experiences, which have a stage-based explanation pertaining to Erikson’s theory. Indeed, Erskine (2019) states that “developmental attunement necessitates the therapist’s sensitivity and responsiveness to the brief expressions of age regression and the transferential expressions of unresolved relational disruptions that emerge in the process of psychotherapy” (p. 13).
Using a stage-based approach to assessing clients’ childhood experiences and traumas, Erskine (2019) was able to establish the connections between personal and relationship-based issues that clients encountered in their early childhood to inform relevant therapeutic interventions. Indeed, a sensitive therapist should “understand the personal and relational crises that young children live, the relational needs that emerge at each developmental stage, the physiological survival reactions and experiential conclusions they may come to, and what constitutes reparative therapeutic involvement” (Erskine, 2019, p. 13). Thus, this research supports the arguments that Erikson promoted about the inherent impact of earlier stages’ outcomes on the adulthood of an individual.
Another research article that supports the ideas of Erik Erikson’s psychosocial developmental theory is related to the investigation of the particularities of school children’s developmental stages relevant to their instruction and schooling methods. In particular, Singh (2017) focused on the application of a stage-based vision of child development to schooling methodologies with specific attention paid to cultural context.
In such a manner, having intertwined the concept of psychosocial development and culture, the scholar concluded that the three childhood stages of development are essential for effective and culturally sensitive teaching. Indeed, development stages’ implications “for schooling are drawn from what is known about how children develop, but it should be emphasized that growth is influenced by context, and schooling is a primary context of childhood” (Singh, 2017, p. 259). Thus, the relevance of the theory’s articulation of social and cultural context’s decisive influence on human development has been supported by the discussed research.
Moreover, Singh (2017) advances this assertion by referring to the practical use of knowledge in developmental stages in the classroom. The scholar states that “just as educators and others should be aware of the ways in which a five-year-old’s reasoning is different from a fifteen-year-olds, it is also important to be aware that the structure and expectations of schooling influence the ways in which children grow and learn” (Singh, 2017, p. 259). Indeed, since children undergo their development in the school environment, it is the responsibility of educators and parents to maximize their opportunities to resolve developmental crises and acquire positive virtues for psychologically fulfilling adulthood.
Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
Similar to the vast body of research studies supporting the ideas and concepts suggested by Erikson, the psychoanalytic theory has obtained much attention and support in the scholarly literature in the psychological field. While some of Freud’s ideas, especially the ones informed exclusively by his personal experiences, were largely criticized by his peers, his general ideas and the exploration of the unconscious mind have been significantly impactful and continue to resonate with the aspirations of contemporary psychologists and therapists (Zhang, 2020). In particular, the research project conducted by Niaz, Stanikzai, and Sahibzada (2019) demonstrates how Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality development might be applicable to a variety of settings, including literary studies.
Indeed, while investigating the unconscious motivations for human behavior dictated by the intersection of sexual and societal stimuli, the psychoanalytic theory helps unfold the complexities of human personalities, both real and fictional, as portrayed in literature. The scholars state that “the analysis draws out the unconscious part of writing through its language on the relationship in the middle of sexual and societal spirit” (Niaz, Stanikzai, & Sahibzada, 2019, p. 36).
In other words, the use of language in a particular manner might reveal one’s id, ego, and superego, which help detect dominant patterns of behavior (Niaz, Stanikzai, & Sahibzada, 2019). Thus, this research provides an evidential basis for arguing that Freud’s theory is an essential methodology for conducting proper diagnoses and treatment of personality issues when applied to the investigation of unconscious motivations and desires.
Indeed, studies related to the use of psychoanalysis as an effective tool in diagnosing and treating personality disorders support the implications of the psychoanalytic theory introduced by Sigmund Freud. In particular, according to Natoli (2019), psychoanalysis has become a part of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, forming a substantial basis for the clinical addressing of personality development. In particular, Freud’s theory is coupled with Kraepelin’s psychiatric model in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders for the purposes of personality investigation (Natoli, 2019).
Natoli (2019) refers to Freud’s structural ideas about personality embodied in the assertion that “the power and influence of id, ego, and superego differ across individuals” as a fundamental premise of understanding human psychology (p. 1027). The scholar supports this approach and emphasizes the importance of Freud’s contribution to contemporary psychoanalytic theory. Indeed, “the theory underlying Freud’s structural model has permitted unique personality styles to be roughly organized in terms of variations in the level of power and control each of these psychic structures maintains’ ‘ (Natoli, 2019, p. 1027). Thus, the psychoanalytic model allows for researching, conceptualizing, and categorizing personalities in their variety.
The Research in the Fields of Child and Family Development Generated by Erickson’s and Freud’s Theories
Scholarly literature written by contemporary psychologists, including academics and therapists, is not limited to the reinvestigation or support of the two discussed models. It includes multiple examples of the significant impact of the concepts and paradigms introduced by Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson on the generation of new ideas in psychological science in general and the field of child and family development, in particular.
Indeed, significant social and personality-based issues might be resolved using the fundamental principles of psychosocial and psychoanalytic theories. Moreover, having originated as interrelated models, where Erikson extended Freud’s ideas about ego and identity, taking them into a social context, the consecutive inquiries are also characterized by the complexity and intertwining of these ideas. The most notable ones will be discussed further in the paper.
Research Related to Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Developmental Theory
The field of child and family development is particularly reliant on psychological and psychosocial theories, which advance the exploration of family and child-related issues and help in their solving. According to Kaiser (2020), a substantial body of research has been triggered by Erikson’s theory in order to find approaches to a proper resolution of traumatic issues associated with violence against street children. Indeed, as the researcher indicates, although Erikson’s theory presents a dynamic stage-by-stage development of an individual from birth to death across the eight consecutive phases, they might differ for individuals exposed to extreme life conditions (Kaiser, 2020). In particular, since children living in the streets are disproportionately exposed to violence, poverty, inequality, and overall social injustice, they fail to obtain the developmental opportunities considered typical under normal circumstances.
Indeed, an example of the conflict of trust vs. mistrust is particularly relevant to this context. As the researcher states, “children living in an unprotected environment often develop distrust due to the abuse and violence they experience from their caregivers” (Kaiser, 2020, p. 47). While family plays a decisive role in the development of trust as opposed to distrust in children at an early stage of their development, the lack of an immediate safe environment deprives street children of the opportunity for normal development. Moreover, the impact of violence on them is researched on the basis of Erikson’s theory and its applicability to unprotected environments (Kaiser, 2020). This aspect of academic research broadens the perspectives of the effective use of psychosocial theory’s ideas and concepts for making the lives of children and families safer and more fulfilling.
Another significant particularity of research generated by Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development is the expansion of the psychologist’s ideas by intertwining them with the ideas borrowed from psychoanalysis. Indeed, Syed and Fish (2018) explore the identity status model introduced by Marcia in the 1960s as a transformed Eriksonian framework. In particular, “the contemporary empirical neo-Eriksonian tradition is commonly traced to Marcia (1966), who developed a protocol and a typology for assessing the psychosocial criteria for determining the degree of ego identity” (p. 275).
Investigating three domains, including professional choice, political ideology, and religious affiliation, Marcia was able to justify personality development’s relation to identity, grounding the implications on Erikson’s ideas. Thus, such an approach to re-establishing the premises of Erikson’s theory allowed for researching “the relation between identity statuses and situational self-esteem and anxiety, identity statuses and intimacy, and longitudinal changes in identity status classification” (Syed & Fish, 2018, p. 275). It is especially relevant in the context of child development due to the possibilities of considering the above mentioned issues in the context of identity forming.
In addition, unlike previous research perspectives that focused on the general implications of Erikson’s theory, a different type of research is concentrated on the in-depth investigation of the virtue of the seventh stage of human psychosocial development. In particular, Roy and Panda (2022) make an argument that “the core quality of the seventh stage of human ego development, generativity vs stagnation, transverses all previous developmental stages and creates a forever-moving life cycle through intergenerational connections” (p. 1).
The scholars specifically focus their research goals on claiming that generativity is the central feature of overall human development since it accumulates the developmental outcomes and achievements across all previously completed lifecycle stages. Indeed, they state that “generativity is critical to human aging as it is closely linked to notions of transfer of knowledge” (Roy & Panda, 2022, p. 1). It is manifested through ego, libido, and aging interaction, where the ego performs “as the medium of generativity and libido as its source of energy” (Roy & Panda, 2022, p. 1). Thus, contemporary scholarly inquiries based on Erikson’s theory generate qualitatively new knowledge in the understanding of child and family development.
Research Related to Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
Freud’s theory has also generated a significant body of new ideas in psychological and family development research. Overall, its breakthrough in the identification of the unconscious has triggered advanced perspectives on the diagnosis and treatment of personality disorders through the lens of childhood experiences. According to Yakeley (2018), the theory of personality development introduced by Sigmund Freud has generated significant advancements in the understanding of child development patterns. In particular, according to the scholar, in the context of contemporary challenges in the field of mental health services and personality treatment difficulties, psychoanalytic perspectives might be particularly helpful (Yakeley, 2018).
Indeed, “psychoanalytic conceptualizations of human psychological processes and behavior… could be helpful in understanding the nature of these difficulties and in initiating therapeutic change within complex systems of care” (Yakeley, 2018, p. 443). Thus, Freud’s model is currently used to inform systematic therapeutic decision-making to advance psychological science and clinical practice toward the requirements of the challenging time.
Moreover, the Freudian theory has generated research in the field of educational and care-based interventions for child development. Indeed, according to Saracho (2021), the use of psychoanalytic theories in early childhood education informs the implementation of emotion and feelings-related methods to help young students express themselves without using words. Indeed, “various forms of expression – art, music, and movement – allow children to express those ideas and feelings that they cannot express in words” (Saracho, 2021, p. 12). The researcher investigates a multitude of personality development theories on the choice of methods for child education, focusing on the core relevance of Freud’s ideas (Saracho, 2021). Thus, it is evident that psychoanalysis has become a trigger of an array of scholarly and educational inquiries aimed at the facilitation of child development and the early stages of their lifespans.
In addition, the psychoanalytic theory has become a basis for cultivating new ideas in developmental disorders’ treatment in children. Indeed, Gabriel (2021) states that the identification and proper addressing of child developmental concerns are particularly enabled by the advances of Freud’s psychoanalysis. Indeed, this piece of research holds that since contemporary childhood studies are transforming into a complex multi-disciplinary doctrine, it is essential to integrate proper psychological frameworks based on classical ideas (Gabriel, 2021).
For example, Freud’s theory ignited a scholarly discussion of the relevance of societal differences to personality development relevant to child issues. In particular, “Elias argues that Freud did not consider the possibility that the process of biological evolution was responsible for the distinguishing characteristic of human societies’ ‘ (Gabriel, 2021, p. 53). Therefore, the observed examples of research articles based on the concepts and ideas presented by Freud illustrate the continued relevance of this model until today due to its breakthrough in the perspectives on human development.
Conclusion
Conclusively, the exploration and in-depth research of Erik Erikson’s and Sigmund Freud’s theories of personality development has demonstrated that these fundamental psychological models have been a driving force of contemporary child and family development theories. Multiple research studies have supported the ideas introduced by the two renowned psychologists, having solidified their place in the history of contemporary child and family development studies. Moreover, they have generated additional and qualitatively new academic, clinical, and educational insights into the problems of child development, which make this field evidence-based and research-driven.
References
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