Introduction
Human behavior and emotions are complex since they are formed due to the interaction between a person’s intrinsic mechanisms and external factors. Therefore, for many years, psychologists have strived to develop theories and methods that may help understand people and offer them adequate counseling to resolve their mental issues. In psychology, hypotheses are used to explain the causes of patients’ problems and propose strategies for resolving them. In fact, the very goal of counseling, in contrast to psychotherapy, is to be directive about an individual’s issues, allowing resolution in a short period of time (J. Sommers-Flanagan & R. Sommers-Flanagan, 2018). The three major theories that will be discussed in this paper are psychodynamic, phenomenological, and cognitive-behavioral. Some of these theories focus more on the unconscious motives for specific responses and actions, while others concentrate on the cognitive component of human psychology. The variations in the perception of human emotions demand counselors to select one or several methodologies to help their clients (Okun & Kantrowitz, 2015). The choice of a theory varies with a specific case, but the most practical and relatively fast technique to resolve individuals’ issues is cognitive-behavioral theory.
Psychodynamic Theory: Main Points
The psychodynamic theory was initially proposed by Sigmund Freud and categorized as directed toward revealing the subconscious parts of a person’s mental problem. Freud’s ideas were later modified by Adler, Jung, Fromm, Erikson, and other psychologists to formulate the modern psychodynamic approach (Okun & Kantrowitz, 2015). Freudian conceptions of a human being were known to be primarily negative, describing people’s behavior as pre-determined by instinctual desires (Okun & Kantrowitz, 2015). He subdivided human personality into id, ego, and superego, which are unconscious primitive elements, rational mediation of events and perceptions, and internalization of parental and societal influences, respectively (Okun & Kantrowitz, 2015). Freud believed that all emotional problems stem from the imbalance between the three and excessive suppression of libido, which belongs to the id (Okun & Kantrowitz, 2015). Indeed, his classification of developmental stages was defined by a person’s sexual development from infancy to adulthood. Contrary to Freud, Jung and Adler suggested that human beings are driven by not only erotic needs but are also capable of spiritual growth as well as correcting their behavior and hence destinies.
The branches of Freudian theory that were developed later incorporated the concept of id, ego, and superego. However, they placed less emphasis on the id but concentrated primarily on the need for human interaction. Modern psychodynamic theory concluded that personality disorders arise from dysfunctional relationships with caregivers early in life because of abnormal ego formation (Okun & Kantrowitz, 2015). Moreover, according to this theory, people develop specific defense mechanisms due to the inability to manage challenging situations and the emotions associated with them (Gregory, 2020). Specifically, some of these mechanisms are reaction formation, projection, regression, repression, and displacement (Gregory, 2020). As the name suggests, repression is the suppression of one’s emotions and hiding them in the unconscious, and in regression, an adult individual acquires juvenile patterns of behavior (Gregory, 2020). Reaction formation means responding to a situation in a way contrary to one’s true values (Gregory, 2020). Displacement is imposing one’s emotions on something or someone not responsible for the problem, while projection is the assignment of one’s feelings to others (Gregory, 2020). Overall, a psychodynamic theory is helpful for understanding the reasons for people’s actions and responses.
Phenomenological Theory: Main Points
In contrast to the psychodynamic approach, the phenomenological theory focuses on a person’s affect and present state rather than one’s behavior and cognition resulting from past or future events. The three major movements related to this theory are existential psychotherapy, Gestalt therapy, and client-oriented methodology (Okun & Kantrowitz, 2015). Existential analysis, developed by Viktor Frankl, Rollo May, and some other psychiatrists, intended to show that human beings, regardless of the circumstances, have the capacity to choose and own their responses (Okun & Kantrowitz, 2015). In Gestalt theory, it is believed that a person’s mental problems should be viewed holistically since they result from a combination of different experiences (Okun & Kantrowitz, 2015). Thus, one can form an awareness of these issues, take responsibility, and become self-supportive. The most popular nowadays, the client-oriented approach, was developed by Carl Rogers in the 1930s (Okun & Kantrowitz, 2015). It uniquely views every individual’s challenges, offering personalized solutions.
Cognitive-Behavioral Theory: Main Points
One of the most directive and results-oriented theories is the cognitive-behavioral approach. According to Okun and Kantrowitz (2015), the three major types of this theory are reality therapy (RT), rational-emotive behavior theory (REBT), and cognitive-behavior therapy (CBT). REBT helps to restructure dysfunctional thinking, and RT explores one’s values to restructure and control the environment to make it satisfactory for a person (Okun & Kantrowitz, 2015). CBT recognizes a client’s inner world to select the most effective clinical behavioral intervention to ensure positive thinking and better outcome (Okun & Kantrowitz, 2015). CBT is divided into three major waves: behavioral, cognitive and behavioral, as well as the combination of mindfulness, dialectics, and acceptance (Gregory, 2020). The latter enables people to identify their toxic thought patterns and behaviors, admit them, and create room for flexibility. Mindfulness-based therapy helps patients disengage from negative thinking, and the dialectical approach allows restructuring it to minimize the difference between current and desired states (Gregory, 2020). The acceptance theory uses special language, visualization, and exposure to fully embrace the emotional problem and make it less triggering for the patient.
Strengths of the Three Theories
As complex and possibly effective as the three theories appear, all have their strengths and weaknesses. The main advantage of the psychodynamic theory is that it allows a person to recognize the suppressed emotional problems as well as understand internal and external conflicts through direction, interpretation, associations, and evaluation (Gregory, 2020). Simply put, unconscious memories of unpleasant situations are brought to one’s awareness. Indeed, this theory was found to be particularly useful for marginalized and oppressed groups that were exposed to severe discrimination and torture that produced a mixture of negative emotions.
The primary strength of the phenomenological theory is that it shifts a client’s concerns about past and future thoughts and actions to the feelings at the present moment. Furthermore, all three approaches of this theory encourage humans to strive for positive change by taking responsibility for their behavior (Okun & Kantrowitz, 2015). Another benefit of the phenomenological method is that it has a personalized approach to patients, removing the cliches of the Freudian negative view of people and offering them empathy and hope.
The advantage of the cognitive-behavioral theory is that it provides a practical solution to a mental issue by recognizing and accepting mental triggers and dysfunctional thoughts through various techniques. Since it produces actual results in patients, it enables conducting quantifiable research about human behavior, raising psychology’s status from art to science (Okun & Kantrowitz, 2015). CBT, in particular, delineates the problem, establishes goals, and develops strategies for attaining the desired outcome as much as possible.
Weaknesses of the Three Theories
The major weakness of the psychodynamic theory is that it is excessively focused on the subconscious. Recognizing the serious internal issues of a person is essential, but sometimes it may require months or even years to identify all childhood traumas to work with. Clients with severe neuroses may be in demand of a more practical approach that can at least slightly improve their emotional state. Furthermore, according to this theory, human behavior primarily results from the interaction between the id, ego, and superego (Okun & Kantrowitz, 2015). However, it does not consider multiple external factors that may impact one’s actions.
As positive as it seems, the phenomenological theory still has its weaknesses. Since it is focused on establishing warm relations between a counselor and a client, its outcomes are hard to measure; therefore, this method cannot be incorporated into research (Okun & Kantrowitz, 2015). Furthermore, although all approaches of the phenomenological theories perceive all human beings as inherently good, excessive elimination of topics of discrimination and harassment makes this theory useless for the victims of structural racism or rape.
Like in phenomenological theory, the cognitive-behavioral approach’s weakness is that it is impersonating. Although it is significantly helpful in the cases when an individual’s behavior causes one’s problems, it may not apply in the situation of psychological issues resulting from traumatic events (Okun & Kantrowitz, 2015). Thus, CBT seems to be useful in helping people make positive changes in their lives if the problem can be changed through behavioral improvement, but it may be offensive for people with an emotional injury.
Cognitive-Behavioral Theory in Human Service Field
The cognitive-behavioral theory is the most compelling for me to use when working in the human service field. I prefer it over other approaches because it is a results-oriented method by which good outcomes can be achieved with clients. Furthermore, I like CBT because it literally emerged from laboratories when researchers conducted conditioning and behavior experiments in animal laboratories in the early and mid-twentieth century (Okun & Kantrowitz, 2015). Additionally, it was proven effective for depression, anxiety, addictions, eating disorders, personality disorders, and even some childhood conduct disorders (Gregory, 2020). Although it may be inappropriate for issues like cultural trauma, some CBT methodologies are used for such complex cases as bipolar and schizophrenia (Gregory, 2020). Another reason why I chose CBT for the human service field is that it uses a nonjudgmental approach, teaching clients how to recognize and accept their troubling thoughts and replace them with a positive mindset. Indeed, negative ideation and behavior patterns cannot be eliminated because they become tightly wired in the human brain due to being constantly repeated. Hence, creating new neuronal pathways for better habits and thoughts may help diminish the old ones.
Interventions Offered by Each Theory
Each theory provides a set of patient interventions depending on their situation. The psychodynamic approach offers a four-stage therapy consisting of opening, developing transference, working through transference, and resolution (Okun & Kantrowitz, 2015). The term transference is used to describe the process of extracting a client’s positive and negative childhood memories to reveal the causes of one’s conflict with parents or caregivers (Okun & Kantrowitz, 2015). I would refer to this as counseling a person with problems with interpersonal relations and difficulty forming long-term personal or career bonds. The phenomenological theory is a process-centered method that helps clients understand themselves and the environment (Okun & Kantrowitz, 2015). This approach is recommended for patients with a personality disorder or other problems that can be overcome through self-analysis and discipline. Lastly, cognitive-behavioral theory offers the broadest range of techniques to help people with mental issues. It incorporates mindfulness, acceptance and commitment therapy, dialectical approach, REBT, RT, and CBT (Gregory, 2020; Okun & Kantrowitz, 2015). The main objective of all these methodologies is to help an individual restructure dysfunctional cognitive processes and harmful conduct by increasing self-awareness and developing positive thinking and behavior.
Conclusion
The three main psychological theories, psychodynamic, phenomenological, and cognitive-behavioral, allow disentangling individuals’ emotional problems and help them improve their mental state and quality of life. The psychodynamic approach is based on Freud’s ideas of the id, ego, and superego and modified by Jung and Adler to make it more positive and less focused on a person’s sexual interests. The phenomenological theory is primarily client-oriented since it helps understand one’s ideas and behavior to make better life decisions. Cognitive-behavioral methodologies are oriented toward creating a positive change in an individual’s life by fixing harmful cognitive processes and behavioral patterns. In social work, I usually prefer the last theory since its outcomes can be observed and measured relatively quickly.
References
Gregory, V. L. (2020). Psychological perspective: Psychodynamic, humanistic, and cognitive-behavioral theories. In R. Ow & A. W. C. Poon (Eds.), Mental health and social work (pp. 47–65). Springer Nature.
Okun, B. F., & Kantrowitz, R.E. (2015). Effective helping: Interviewing and counseling techniques (8th. ed). Cengage Learning.
Sommers-Flanagan, J., & Sommers-Flanagan, R. (2018). Counseling and psychotherapy theories in context and practice: Skills, strategies, and techniques. John Wiley & Sons.